tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-42105092191815252422024-03-07T10:34:27.027+07:00Civil Engineeringbelajar bareng yuk^^GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.comBlogger39125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-19237543577314782682015-02-12T01:20:00.001+07:002015-02-12T01:26:18.055+07:00PELABUHAN LAUT SESI 2<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">PELABUHAN LAUT<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">SESI 2</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>PERENCANAAN PELABUHAN</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pembangunan pelabuhan membutuhkan biaya yang sangat besar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pertimbangan-pertimbangan membangun pelabuhan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> a.
Pertimbangan ekonomi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> b.
Pertimbangan politik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> c.
Pertimbangan teknis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Persyaratan-persyaratan Teknis Pelabuhan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mempunyai
daerah belakang yang potensial<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ada
hubungan yang mudah antara transportasi air dan darat<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kapal
mudah keluar masuk, bergerak/ bermanuver, bertambat, bongkar muat, reparasi<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Biaya
pembangunan dan pemeliharaan yang relatif minim<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Memungkinkan
untuk perluasan/ pengembangan</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-BRCD_y-HrfvVqOrCuR2IvA1bRZ2ZczZJapppOqVeow3Z64DcRXQk0FCsjg7qjlo5miP9_-Wq__a35T90Npg_Ikr9A_ABEItNpkXC9avo1L0-bcUOEpl5QoRJKIv_OiGCHDE2ZvntDnNV/s1600/bts05+12022015.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-BRCD_y-HrfvVqOrCuR2IvA1bRZ2ZczZJapppOqVeow3Z64DcRXQk0FCsjg7qjlo5miP9_-Wq__a35T90Npg_Ikr9A_ABEItNpkXC9avo1L0-bcUOEpl5QoRJKIv_OiGCHDE2ZvntDnNV/s1600/bts05+12022015.png" height="278" width="320" /></a></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fasilitas/bangunan untuk memenuhi persyaratan teknis
pelabuhan</span></u></b></div>
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<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<ol>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pemecah
gelombang</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Alur
pelayaran</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kolam
pelabuhan</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dermaga</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Alat
penambat</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fasilitas
pandu</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fasilitas
bongkar muat</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fasilitas
bahan bakar</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Gudang</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kantor
administrasi</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fasilitas
lain</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><u>Pemecah Gelombang</u></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><u>(Breakwater)</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><b><u>Alur Pelayaran (Navigation Channel)</u></b></span></div>
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<b><u>Dermaga</u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrMKA2KfbqMg579uEbJsAMdkV96WWc7vEWb8z1E4O1DcvNyIxvpzRQiu-bFM2WujI0g6U4k5YHRx_Z-RRzt6fLt1IivRPq67SH4NMa8u0wJvXm8JkZ12KeTZaYoD4Pqe3jjvv5vMb2GWEf/s1600/belajar-teknik-sipil-09-12022015.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrMKA2KfbqMg579uEbJsAMdkV96WWc7vEWb8z1E4O1DcvNyIxvpzRQiu-bFM2WujI0g6U4k5YHRx_Z-RRzt6fLt1IivRPq67SH4NMa8u0wJvXm8JkZ12KeTZaYoD4Pqe3jjvv5vMb2GWEf/s1600/belajar-teknik-sipil-09-12022015.png" height="292" width="400" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><u>Pemilihan Lokasi Pelabuhan</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tinjauan
Topografi dan Geologi<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tinjauan
Pelayaran<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tinjauan
Sedimentasi<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tinjauan
Gelombang dan Arus<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tinjauan
Kedalaman Air<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>1. TOPOGRAFI DAN GEOLOGI</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Topografi : darat dan laut (bathimetri) </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Memungkinkan
untuk dibangun dan dikembangkan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Geologi : pengerukan minimum, tanah baik<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>2. PELAYARAN</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Mudah
dilalui kapal, dipengaruhi angin,
gelombang dan arus<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>3. SEDIMENTASI</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sedimentasi yang terjadi sesedikit mungkin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pengerukan awal (<i>capital dredging</i>) maupun pengerukan
untuk perawatan (<i>maintenance dredging</i>) seminimum mungkin<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>4. GELOMBANG DAN ARUS</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Gelombang menimbulkan gaya-gaya terhadap kapal dan
bangunan-bangunan pelabuhan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Arus mempengaruhi gerakan kapal dan sedimentasi<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>5. KEDALAMAN AIR</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Harus memungkinkan untuk melayani kapal rencana<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dipengaruhi pasang surut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-192558737105872042015-02-12T00:43:00.002+07:002015-02-12T00:43:27.404+07:00ANGKUTAN MASAL PART 1<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .38in; margin-top: 12.96pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>ANGKUTAN MASAL</b></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.haltebus.com/data/contents/images/Volvo%20Plug-in%20Hybrid_4_Gothenburg%202013-1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.haltebus.com/data/contents/images/Volvo%20Plug-in%20Hybrid_4_Gothenburg%202013-1.JPG" height="213" width="320" /></a></div>
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<o:p><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Apa itu Angkutan
Masal?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kali ini kita saya akan membahas tentang angkutan masal,
pertama saya jelaskan untuk arti Transportasi.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i><u>Transportasi
:</u></i><u><o:p></o:p></u></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Proses perpindahan orang, hewan dan barang dari tempat asal
menuju ke tempat tujuan dengan menggunakan moda/sarana transportasi dengan
tujuan untuk memperpendek jarak ruang dan waktu</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ya intinya sih kita berpindah tempat sob ^^</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfWCYATcvp0GRIb0kSPr8swHeDgLYbJ4glZivlZ8Uv_mSPaEtaGh_eL3TbNQd2HF-bTcWx_0BeFA8viUPYZmuT_0fBNfpSQEZo44WHq9NEBfdFfVWGvpXif__KWK_KwB45Yj42ntHtS9jg/s1600/bts+11222015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfWCYATcvp0GRIb0kSPr8swHeDgLYbJ4glZivlZ8Uv_mSPaEtaGh_eL3TbNQd2HF-bTcWx_0BeFA8viUPYZmuT_0fBNfpSQEZo44WHq9NEBfdFfVWGvpXif__KWK_KwB45Yj42ntHtS9jg/s1600/bts+11222015.jpg" height="213" width="320" /></a></div>
<o:p><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span id="goog_1643890337"></span><span id="goog_1643890338"></span><br /></span></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Manfaat
Transportasi :<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Manfaat ekonomi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pertumbuhan ekonomi tergantung dari pertumbuan
teknologi transportasi, terutama pada daerah minus/pedalaman</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 7.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><b>Manfaat Sosial<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pada dasarnya manusia adalah mahluk sosial dan
transportasi merupakan sarana dan prasarana untuk kebutuhan tersebut</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Manfaat Politis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Untuk meingkatkan pertahanan dan keamanan negara/wilayah
diperlukan transpotasi terutama di wilayah kepulauan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Manfaat
Kewilayahan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pertumbuhan suatu wilayah kota/daerah sangat tergantung
dari pertumbuhan sarana dan prasarana transportasi</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikM65UipYtC-_FrxeomRUExuKd1rNgleBfiYkkt1UOBy-O2gqpLAwilr3VkzC68BdhiNGDbe6KyW8FojEgJx_dUeaGDh-5u94NLLbnPOvTUBiTG_2UIv6JThC8Egjn3vdkMFaP1DBhbyRN/s1600/bts02+12022015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikM65UipYtC-_FrxeomRUExuKd1rNgleBfiYkkt1UOBy-O2gqpLAwilr3VkzC68BdhiNGDbe6KyW8FojEgJx_dUeaGDh-5u94NLLbnPOvTUBiTG_2UIv6JThC8Egjn3vdkMFaP1DBhbyRN/s1600/bts02+12022015.jpg" height="180" width="320" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nilai Dari
Transportasi<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nilai tempat (place
utility)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Transportasi mengakibatkan manusia, hewan, barang
mempunyai nilai dari tempat asal ke tempat tujuan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nilai waktu (time
utility)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Transportasi mengakibatkan manusia, hewan, barang
mempunyai nilai dari waktu sebelumnya ke waktu berikutnya</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjccDk_aUtAFGNthsUOBmg6hBmuKPhBiokib5EWhn2HmXQyWxdGvEq6jngM6hZfNuZeSQ7dOobBNcYKrA7Z-ue0vajFJuAYAWVb5VyRrwde16K6D0gI0rUpVi3TpJu6k2BT2VTlEvv4OKeQ/s1600/bts03+12022015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjccDk_aUtAFGNthsUOBmg6hBmuKPhBiokib5EWhn2HmXQyWxdGvEq6jngM6hZfNuZeSQ7dOobBNcYKrA7Z-ue0vajFJuAYAWVb5VyRrwde16K6D0gI0rUpVi3TpJu6k2BT2VTlEvv4OKeQ/s1600/bts03+12022015.jpg" height="255" width="400" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Moda
Transportasi :<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Moda Angkutan
Darat :<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Angkutan Jalan (bus, countainer mikrolet, taxi, andong,
sepeda dll)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Angkutan Rel (K.A, Trem, KRL, KRD, dll)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Angkutan sungai, danau, penyeberangan (kapal fery,
perahu, rakit dll)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Moda Angkutan Laut
:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kapal Laut, Kapal Pesiar</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kapal Tongkang</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kapal Tangker</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Moda Angkutan
Udara :<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pesawat terbang</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Helicopter</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Balon Udara</span></div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Gantole</span></div>
</div>
GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-18930124754915403872014-12-10T17:03:00.001+07:002014-12-10T17:11:53.577+07:00IRIGASI PANCARAN<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif;"><br /></span>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">Daerah Amerika yang memiliki daerah gurun, untuk menangani permasalahan perkebunan engineer disana menggunakan teknologi irigasi pancaran untuk menciptakan lingkungan yang bisa ditanami dan subur</b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;"><b><br /></b></span>
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyqYw0fG3NXcy-CC-R3zeh5_4a-hpR60PzDcnvXYUEuU6uxkTAt30jN-u2QxwHd0uf7n6PrPCdinwiBY-2-LlXZFuYlRVUpec2NXxV9oYQrmeAgM0Dio7tat6bA9NV41osBqBiCdfUqlXB/s1600/Center+Pivot+Sprinkle+Belajar+Teknik+Sipil+laxuzi+Fashion+Shoes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyqYw0fG3NXcy-CC-R3zeh5_4a-hpR60PzDcnvXYUEuU6uxkTAt30jN-u2QxwHd0uf7n6PrPCdinwiBY-2-LlXZFuYlRVUpec2NXxV9oYQrmeAgM0Dio7tat6bA9NV41osBqBiCdfUqlXB/s1600/Center+Pivot+Sprinkle+Belajar+Teknik+Sipil+laxuzi+Fashion+Shoes.jpg" height="480" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">Diatas adalah alat center pivot sprinkle yang dilihat dari dekat</span></div>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">
</span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="355" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" scrolling="no" src="//www.slideshare.net/slideshow/embed_code/42556268" style="background-color: transparent; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin-bottom: 5px; max-width: 100%;" width="425"></iframe></div>
<span style="background-color: #eeeeee; color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">
</span>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5px;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: #666666; font-family: HelveticaNeue, 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, Arial, 'Lucida Grande', sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 22px;">Materi ini didapat dari dosen saya Wahyu Widianto ST.MT</span></div>
</div>
GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-11513572353657411962014-12-08T13:17:00.000+07:002014-12-08T13:34:07.121+07:00TIPE-TIPE JEMBATAN<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPm1MZDXwWpmBfHCsRfjAjNF2m_t2-PpZLE72DGZDz5pBGsZ7PIIoHhkvWQX6ab9A6cHt3IVkDraYnPbMoXN-gGw2RxlwOQi5GpMCLAlIUPWtoMij7moUbBpvAZ1Fts6CP3y3yO0ftd2Df/s1600/jembatan+Belajar+Teknik+Sipil+BTS+Laxuzi.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPm1MZDXwWpmBfHCsRfjAjNF2m_t2-PpZLE72DGZDz5pBGsZ7PIIoHhkvWQX6ab9A6cHt3IVkDraYnPbMoXN-gGw2RxlwOQi5GpMCLAlIUPWtoMij7moUbBpvAZ1Fts6CP3y3yO0ftd2Df/s1600/jembatan+Belajar+Teknik+Sipil+BTS+Laxuzi.jpg" height="600" width="2000" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br />
<br />
Salam Sobat,<br />
<br />
Kali ini bakal saya share Tipe Jembatan di Dunia,,<br />
Terutama Di Indonesia<br />
<br />
Selamat Belajar ^^<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<iframe frameborder="0" height="400" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" scrolling="no" src="//www.slideshare.net/slideshow/embed_code/42457160" width="476"></iframe></div>
GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-71235520065486839502014-04-23T22:57:00.000+07:002014-04-23T22:57:14.091+07:00<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwpILySGil-75RgQoUWhCKnJRnGbeI7li0eNh_zLgjqIX9WvOWBa6v-PVRG9nVla7DCyyYBRsGWHNnbJ-l7eIPgn8OyrE3dhKM3deZmAJlTiPQM3qLQQwNwyM3is09al86obbScfznTELy/s1600/Website-Under-Construction-template1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwpILySGil-75RgQoUWhCKnJRnGbeI7li0eNh_zLgjqIX9WvOWBa6v-PVRG9nVla7DCyyYBRsGWHNnbJ-l7eIPgn8OyrE3dhKM3deZmAJlTiPQM3qLQQwNwyM3is09al86obbScfznTELy/s1600/Website-Under-Construction-template1.jpg" height="424" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-33673895438216861752013-02-25T14:50:00.000+07:002013-02-25T15:06:21.952+07:00PELABUHAN LAUT SESI 1<br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
HAI HAI SOBAT BTS ^^</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
YUK ADA ILMU ASIK NI..</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Kali ni kita bakal coba buat belajar tentang pelabuhan laut,
so jangan kemana-mana yaa....</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8c1qeIegqJtP5RXbJxstTbF1YcCqzgBMxosHTNkCEm3eZiJpMHJHAADRKvH2kYiqj6xYHrNewVpnK9nxNAwsU6bs1SSmWKyaMnjDh803EzUDll04Kp17Hbaogg0VbM8BJidteuYVK_k2s/s1600/Picture1.jpg" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8c1qeIegqJtP5RXbJxstTbF1YcCqzgBMxosHTNkCEm3eZiJpMHJHAADRKvH2kYiqj6xYHrNewVpnK9nxNAwsU6bs1SSmWKyaMnjDh803EzUDll04Kp17Hbaogg0VbM8BJidteuYVK_k2s/s1600/Picture1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US">PELABUHAN
LAUT</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Pelabuhan (<i>Port</i>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span lang="EN-US">Pelabuhan</span></u><span lang="EN-US">: daerah perairan yang terlindung
terhadap gelombang yang dilengkapi dengan fasilitas terminal laut meliputi
dermaga di mana kapal dapat bertambat untuk bongkar muat barang, kran-kran
untuk bongkar muat barang, gudang laut (transito) dan tempat-tempat penyimpanan
di mana kapal membongkar muatannya, dan gudang-gudang di mana barang-barang
dapat disimpan dalam waktu yang lebih lama selama menunggu pengiriman ke daerah
tujuan atau pengapalan. Terminal ini dilengkapi dengan jalan kereta api, jalan
raya atau saluran pelayaran darat. Dengan demikian daerah pengaruh pelabuhan
bisa sangat jauh dari pelabuhan tersebut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Bandar (<i>Harbour</i>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="EN-US">Bandar </span></i><span lang="EN-US">: daerah perairan yang terlindung
terhadap gelombang dan angin untuk berlabuhnya kapal-kapal. Bandar ini hanya
merupakan daerah perairan dengan bangunan-bangunan yang diperlukan untuk
pembentukannya, perlindungan dan perawatan, seperti pemecah gelombang, jetty
dan sebagainya, dan hanya merupakan tempat bersinggahnya kapal untuk berlindung,
mengisi bahan bakar, reparasi, dan sebagainya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Daerah
belakang (<i>Hinterland</i>)</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><u><span lang="EN-US">Daerah Belakang</span></u><span lang="EN-US">: daerah yang mempunyai hubungan
kepentingan dengan suatu pelabuhan. </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Misalnya : Jawa Barat (bahkan
Indonesia) merupakan daerah belakang Pelabuhan Tanjung Priok. Sulawesi Selatan
dan sekitarnya merupakan daerah belakang Pelabuhan Makassar. Cilacap atau Jawa
Tengah pada umumnya merupakan daerah belakang Pelabuhan Tanjung Intan.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">JENIS
PELABUHAN</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">1. Ditinjau
dari segi penyelenggaraan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> a. Pelabuhan umum : untuk
kepentingan pelayaran </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> masyarakat umum.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> b. Pelabuhan khusus : untuk
kepentingan sendiri </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> guna menunjang
kegiatan tertentu.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">2. Ditinjau
dari segi pengusahaannya </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> a. Pelabuhan yang diusahakan :
sengaja diusahakan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> agar diperoleh pendapatan (<i>income</i>) dari
pelabuhan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> tersebut </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> b. Pelabuhan yang tidak diusahakan
: biasanya berupa </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> pelabuhan kecil
yang disubsidi pemerintah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaK9cD6Dq-uivl3ncsoYXmVmc42hW8OYVr5e0boi_nwTHo-h-8LoMYPx-xbqMEyrk_s8v7BdPzKqv-nRRokKGFGaGP1ynx-yKcY5Xwd5tVDJQOAUIbO27jRcdAUYavPL0kh_uPWjNzYScJ/s1600/Picture2.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="208" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaK9cD6Dq-uivl3ncsoYXmVmc42hW8OYVr5e0boi_nwTHo-h-8LoMYPx-xbqMEyrk_s8v7BdPzKqv-nRRokKGFGaGP1ynx-yKcY5Xwd5tVDJQOAUIbO27jRcdAUYavPL0kh_uPWjNzYScJ/s1600/Picture2.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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height:239.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
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o:title=""/>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">3. Ditinjau
dari fungsinya dalam perdagangan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> a. Pelabuhan laut/samudera :
bebas dimasuki kapal </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> berbendera asing </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> b. Pelabuhan pantai : tidak
bebas disinggahi kapal </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> berbendera asing </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd5MmlqnxQ1tszO5EtFr5M6Co0HS0rR3j2BAorCy86PncHY7l9x1OtaGyA9sl-KJcV2IEvnpVlILaySbykBCM-qkKal5gZEKw9E1gSpBq46M_Qnqd_d4WwHsP2DRIqHlyN5vEk-ap0bec6/s1600/Picture8.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="209" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd5MmlqnxQ1tszO5EtFr5M6Co0HS0rR3j2BAorCy86PncHY7l9x1OtaGyA9sl-KJcV2IEvnpVlILaySbykBCM-qkKal5gZEKw9E1gSpBq46M_Qnqd_d4WwHsP2DRIqHlyN5vEk-ap0bec6/s1600/Picture8.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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o:title=""/>
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o:title=""/>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">4. Ditinjau
dari segi penggunaannya :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> a. Pelabuhan Ikan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> b. Pelabuhan Minyak </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> c. Pelabuhan Barang </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> d. Pelabuhan Penumpang </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> e. Pelabuhan Campuran </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> f . Pelabuhan Militer </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> Pelabuhan
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<span lang="EN-US">5. Ditinjau
dari letak geografisnya </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> a. Pelabuhan Alam </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> b. Pelabuhan Buatan </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> c. Pelabuhan Semi Alam </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">KAPAL</span></div>
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kapal yang akan berlabuh </span></div>
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didasarkan pada ukuran kapal rencana.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Beberapa definisi </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"> 1.
<i>Deadweight Tonnage</i>, DWT (Bobot Mati) : berat total muatan di mana kapal
dapat mengangkut dalam keadaan pelayaran optimal (draft maksimum)</span></div>
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2.
<i>Gross Register Tons</i>, GRT (Ukuran Isi Kotor) : volume keseluruhan ruangan
kapal (1GRT = 100ft<sup>3</sup> = 2,83m<sup>3</sup>)</div>
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<span lang="EN-US">3. Sarat
(draft/<i>draught</i>) : bagian kapal yang terendam air pada keadaan muatan
maksimum, atau jarak antara garis air pada beban yang direncanakan (<i>design
load water line</i>) dengan titik terendah kapal.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">4.
Panjang total (<i>length overall</i>, <i>L<sub>oa</sub></i>) : panjang
kapal dihitung dari ujung depan (haluan) sampai ujung belakang (buritan).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">5. Panjang
garis air (<i>length between perpendicular</i>, <i>L</i><sub>pp</sub>) :
panjang antara kedua ujung <i>design water line</i>.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">6. Lebar
kapal (<i>beam</i>) : jarak maksimum antara dua sisi kapal.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Perkembangan Ukuran Kapal </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Dimensi Kapal </span></div>
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tabel data:</div>
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<o:p> Terimakasih kepada bapa Wahyu Widiyanto ST., MT.</o:p><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 28pt; text-indent: 0in;"></span></div>
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<o:p>yang telah menginspirasi isi materi ini</o:p></div>
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<o:p>NEXT ON SESI SELANJUTNYA DITUNGGU YA... ^^</o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-71783095913148125032012-05-23T21:45:00.001+07:002012-05-23T21:48:50.973+07:00PELAKSANAAN PEKERJAAN PONDASI TIANG BETON COR DI TEMPAT ( Cast in Situ ) JENIS PONDASI TIANG FRANKY<br />
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</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="SV" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">PELAKSANAAN PEKERJAAN <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="SV" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">PONDASI TIANG BETON COR DI TEMPAT ( </span></b><i><span lang="SV" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">Cast in Situ</span></i><b><span lang="SV" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"> )<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="SV" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">JENIS PONDASI TIANG FRANKY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Teknik Pondasi</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> adalah suatu upaya teknis untuk
mendapatkan jenis dan dimensi <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pondasi" title="Pondasi"><span style="color: black;">pondasi</span></a> bangunan yang efisien, sehingga
dapat menyangga beban yang bekerja dengan baik. Jenis pondasi yang digunakan
dalam suatu perencanaan bangunan tergantung dari jenis tanah dan beban yang
bekerja pada lokasi rencana proyek. Pondasi didesain agar memiliki kapasitas
dukung dengan penurunan / settlement tertentu, desain utamanya mempertimbangkan
penurunan dan daya dukung tanah, dalam beberapa kasus semisal turap, defleksi /
lendutan pondasi juga diikutkan dalam perteimbangan. Ketika berbicara
penurunan, yang diperhitungkan biasanya penurunan total(keseluruhan bagian
pondasi turun bersama-sama) dan penurunan diferensial(sebagian pondasi saja
yang turun / miring). Ini dapat menimbulkan masalah bagi struktur yang
didukungnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Daya dukung pondasi merupakan kombinasi dari kekuatan
gesekan tanah terhadap pondasi( tergantung pada jenis tanah, massa jenisnya,
nilai kohesi adhesinya, kedalamannya, dsb), kekuatan tanah dimana ujung pondasi
itu berdiri, dan juga pada bahan pondasi itu sendiri. Dalamnya tanah serta
perubahan-perubahan yang terjadi di dalamnya amatlah sulit dipastikan, oleh
karena itu beban yang bekerja dibatasi, biasanya sepertiga dari kekuatan
desainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Beban
yang bekerja pada suatu pondasi dapat diproyeksikan menjadi:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Beban Horizontal/Beban <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geser&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Geser (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">Geser</span></a>,
contohnya beban akibat gaya tekan tanah, transfer beban akibat gaya angin
pada dinding.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Beban Vertikal/Beban <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tekan&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Tekan (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">Tekan</span></a>
dan Beban <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tarik&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Tarik (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">Tarik</span></a>,
contohnya:<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> -
<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beban_Mati&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Beban Mati (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">Beban
Mati</span></a>, contoh berat sendiri bangunan<br />
- <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beban_Hidup&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Beban Hidup (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">Beban
Hidup</span></a>, contoh beban penghuni, air hujan dan salju<br />
</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> -
Gaya Gempa<br />
- Gaya Angkat Air (Lifting Force)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
Pondasi tiang pancang (pile
foundation) adalah bagian dari struktur yang digunakan untuk menerima dan
mentransfer (menyalurkan) beban dari struktur atas ke tanah penunjang yang terletak
pada kedalaman tertentu, tujuan dari pondasi tiang adalah :<br />
- untuk menyalurkan beban pondasi ke tanah keras<br />
- untuk menahan beban vertical, lateral, dan beban uplift<b><br />
</b>Struktur yang menggunakan pondasi tiang pancang apabila tanah dasar tidak
mempunyai kapasitas daya pikul yang memadai. Kalau hasil pemeriksaan tanah
menunjukkan bahwa tanah dangkal tidak stabil & kurang keras atau apabila
besarnya hasil estimasi penurunan tidak dapat diterima pondasi tiang pancang
dapat menjadi bahan pertimbangan. Lebih jauh lagi, estimasi biaya dapat menjadi
indicator bahwa pondasi tiang pancang biayanya lebih murah daripada jenis
pondasi yang lain dibandingkan dengan biaya perbaikan tanah. Dalam kasus
konstruksi berat, kapasitas daya pikul dari tanah dangkal tidak akan
memuaskan,dan konstruski seharusnya di bangun diatas pondasi tiang. Tiang
pancang juga digunakan untuk kondisi tanah yang normal untuk menahan beban
horizontal. Tiang pancang merupakan metode yang tepat untuk pekerjaan diatas
air, seperti jetty atau dermaga.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
Dalam tugas
ini akan dibahas tentang pondasi tiang beton, khususnya pondasi tiang beton cor
di tempat ( <i>cast in situ</i> ). Pondasi
tiang beton <i>cast in situ</i> pada
prinsipnya adalah lubang dibuat dalam tanah dan baru dilakukan pengecoran. Ada
tiga tipe pondasi <i>cast in situ,</i>
yaitu:<o:p></o:p></div>
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1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span>Tiang beton tanpa kulit baja<o:p></o:p></div>
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2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span>Tiang beton dengan kulit baja<o:p></o:p></div>
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3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span>Tiang ulir<o:p></o:p></div>
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Dalam tugas ini akan membahas
tipe tiang beton tanpa kulit baja. Penggunaan tiang beton tanpa kulit baja
didasarkan pada dua keadaan tanah di
lapangan, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></div>
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a.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span>Jenis
tanah dasar fondasi tidak mudah runtuh<o:p></o:p></div>
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Dengan kondisi tanah seperti ini biasanya digunakan pondasi tipe <b>Strausz</b>. Secara umum pelaksanaan
pondasi Strausz adalah, mula-mula dibuat lubang ke dalam tanah, kemudian tanah
dikeluarkan dari dalam lubang tersebut. Lalu tulangan dimasukkan dan
selanjutnya dilakukan pengecoran. Untuk mengurangi volume beton, dimasukkan
geotekstil ke dalam lubang bor untuk melapisi bidang kontak antara tiang dan
tanah sebelum tiang dicor.<o:p></o:p></div>
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b.<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span>Jenis
tanah dasar fondasi mudah runtuh<o:p></o:p></div>
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Jika kondisi tanah dasar pondasi seperti ini dapat digunakan pondasi
jenis <b>Franki</b>. Secara umum
pelaksanaannya adalah, pipa baja yang terbuka ujungnya dan dipancang ke dalam
tanah. Kemudian tanah di dalam pipa dikeluarkan lalu tulangan pondasi
dimasukkan. Bersamaan dengan pelaksanaan pengecoran beton, pipa baja dicabut.
Metode lain jika ukuran tiang kecil, dapat digunakan sepatu dibagian ujung
tiang, sehingga tidak diperlukan usaha untuk mengeluarkan tanah dari dalam
pipa. Pada waktu pelaksanaan pengecoran, pipa baja dicabut dan bagian sepatu
tertinggal di dalam tanah.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Pondasi tiang beton digunakan
untuk bangunan tinggi (high rise building) dengan pelaksanaan sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Melakukan pemetaan dan test
untuk menentukan kedalaman tanah keras dan klasifikasi panjang tiang
pancang sesuai pembebanan yang telah diperhitungkan.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Melakukan pengeboran tanah
dengan mesin pengeboran.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Melakukan perakitan tulangan pondasi
yang sudah di desain.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Melakukan pengecoran di lubang
yang sudah terdapat tulangan pondasi.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pekerjaan
pondasi umumnya merupakan pekerjaan awal dari suatu proyek. Oleh karena itu
yang penting adalah dilakukan pemetaan terlebih dahulu. Proses ini sebaiknya
sebelum alat-alat proyek masuk, karena kalau sesudahnya susah untuk
melakukan ‘nembak’ titik lokasi pondasi. Dari pemetaan ini maka dapat
diperoleh suatu patokan yang tepat antara koordinat pada gambar kerja dan
kondisi lapangan. Pekerjaan pondasi tiang bor memerlukan alat-alat berat pada
proyek tersebut. Disebut alat-alat berat memang karena bobotnya alat yang
berat, oleh karena itu manajer proyek harus dapat memastikan perkerjaan
persiapaan apa yang diperlukan agar alat yang berat tersebut dapat masuk ke
areal dengan baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="position: relative; z-index: 251652096;"><span style="height: 250px; left: 61px; position: absolute; top: -85px; width: 500px;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYiyhUygKOFd6BmcuxgdVm3tst4G-gCSm1qiU_ODGemsOYEWSlDRRDmbM3yEa0lBAJmqMz-Tew0nvK3tr5bL4wSe-PFhZgYtY9mIf-2kV3nIcistiY_t7TtcGdckQZp5AuxaE4I9dpVdXt/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYiyhUygKOFd6BmcuxgdVm3tst4G-gCSm1qiU_ODGemsOYEWSlDRRDmbM3yEa0lBAJmqMz-Tew0nvK3tr5bL4wSe-PFhZgYtY9mIf-2kV3nIcistiY_t7TtcGdckQZp5AuxaE4I9dpVdXt/s400/1.jpg" width="400" /></a></span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Excavator
mempersiapkan areal proyek agar alat-alat berat yang lain bisa masuk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Di
suatu lokasi proyek dapat terjadi hal-hal yang diluar perkiraan mengenai
kondisi tanah, untuk menghindari amblesnya alat-alat berat tadi maka diperlukan
pelat baja. Pelat baja tersebut dimaksudkan agar alat-alat berat tidak ambles
jika kekuatan tanahnya diragukan. Jika sampai ambles, untuk mengangkat alat
saja biayanya lebih besar dibanding biaya yang diperlukan untuk mengadakan
pelat-pelat tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Paralel
dengan pekerjaan persiapan, maka pembuatan penulangan tiang bor telah dapat
dilakukan. Ini penting, karena jangan sampai jika sudah dibor ternyata
tulangannya belum siap. Jika tertunda lama, tanah pada lubang bor bisa rusak
(mungkin karena hujan atau lainnya). Jika hal itu terjadi perlu dilakukan
pengerjaan bor lagi. Pemilihan tempat untuk merakit tulangan tidak boleh
terlalu jauh, masih terjangkau oleh alat-alat berat tetapi tidak boleh sampai
mengganggu manuver alat-alat berat itu sendiri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pekerjaan penulangan pondasi tiang bor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jenis
pondasi yang digunakan dalam pembahasan ini adalah <b><u>pondasi Franki</u></b>, tipe Franki dipilih karena tanah dasar
pondasi mudah runtuh. Franki mempunyai khas dibagian bawahnya membesar.
Diameter pondasi bisa mencapai 1 m lebih, kedalaman pondasi adalah sampai tanah
keras ( SPT 50 ).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berikut
adalah contoh desain pondasi Franki :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam
melakukan pengeboran diperlukan <b>crane </b>atau
<b>excavator </b>tersendiri, karena mesin
bor-nya terpisah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Proses
pengeboran merupakan proses awal dimulainya pengerjaan pondasi tiang bor,
kedalaman dan diameter tiang bor menjadi parameter utama dipilihnya alat-alat
bor. Juga terdapatnya batuan atau material dibawah permukaan tanah. Ini perlu
diantisipasi sehingga bisa disediakan metode, dan peralatan yang cocok.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Setelah pengeboran
selesai dan mencapai suatu kedalaman yang ‘mencukupi’, untuk menghindari tanah
di tepi lubang berguguran maka perlu di pasang casing, yaitu pipa yang
mempunyai ukuran diameter dalam kurang lebih sama dengan diameter lubang bor.<o:p></o:p></div>
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pada prinsipnya cara pemasangan
casing sama: diangkat dan dimasukkan pada lubang bor. Tentu saja kedalaman
lubang belum sampai bawah, secukupnya. Kalau menunggu sampai kebawah, maka
bisa-bisa tanah berguguran semua. Lubang tertutup lagi. Jadi pemasangan casing
penting. Setelah casing terpasang, maka pengeboran dapat dilanjutkan, mata
auger diganti dengan Cleaning Bucket yaitu untuk membuang tanah atau lumpur di
dasar lubang.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVU9LTiqoc8QEezISbAqtgGk3I7SfXUszQe4L9YNSKRiuNoUI5t8c_QA1ELmIPGyf0YL2j_p4dns2Or_ZYh1brP8EBqnXT46kWvXp0fXO5E7NmC_LYOL10r-_SIxHY8TAcSqz3qkbDp1rh/s1600/8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVU9LTiqoc8QEezISbAqtgGk3I7SfXUszQe4L9YNSKRiuNoUI5t8c_QA1ELmIPGyf0YL2j_p4dns2Or_ZYh1brP8EBqnXT46kWvXp0fXO5E7NmC_LYOL10r-_SIxHY8TAcSqz3qkbDp1rh/s400/8.jpg" width="253" /></a><b> </b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPWoR4sFM5y7Z4moj83A3nji07bDYdgIGCH0m_xlviWfvIZcmwti02ccaUMwRYV5M_ijvE5t02hoQJP4_19PV7DhmqW-JuUordV5vvRth-Ywk0xtSM6wgCA0uDsE16BiiL-CbbMTKdEsA4/s1600/9.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPWoR4sFM5y7Z4moj83A3nji07bDYdgIGCH0m_xlviWfvIZcmwti02ccaUMwRYV5M_ijvE5t02hoQJP4_19PV7DhmqW-JuUordV5vvRth-Ywk0xtSM6wgCA0uDsE16BiiL-CbbMTKdEsA4/s400/9.jpg" width="255" /></a></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jika
pekerjaan pengeboran dan pembersihan tanah hasil pengeboran dan akhirnya sudah
menjadi kondisi tanah keras. Maka untuk sistem pondasi Franky Pile maka bagian
bawah pondasi yang bekerja dengan mekanisme bearing dapat dilakukan pembesaran.
Untuk itu dipakai mata bor khusus, Belling Tools.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Cleaning
Bucket dan Belling Tools<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
setelah beberapa lama dan
diperkirakan sudah mencapai kedalaman rencana maka perlu dipastikan terlebih
dahulu apakah kedalaman lubang bor sudah mencukupi, yaitu melalui pemeriksaan
manual.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3I1rAdp9ai84o_RtJQB_QVNHOiv2hqKMywldhPX4OPx1Z9FwM_4ah7m4YQmJJNd17DIBs-n4tumnBgKAAx7xd7-WfVV7UerB3ZEFU971K0AWiFA7n5cMN_i52GjDRlNSQGnqWCb6-pRZF/s1600/11.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="392" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3I1rAdp9ai84o_RtJQB_QVNHOiv2hqKMywldhPX4OPx1Z9FwM_4ah7m4YQmJJNd17DIBs-n4tumnBgKAAx7xd7-WfVV7UerB3ZEFU971K0AWiFA7n5cMN_i52GjDRlNSQGnqWCb6-pRZF/s400/11.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Perlu juga diperhatikan bahwa
tanah hasil pemboran perlu juga dichek dengan data hasil penyelidikan
terdahulu. Apakah jenis tanah adalah sama seperti yang diperkirakan dalam
menentukan kedalaman tiang bor tersebut. Ini perlu karena sampel tanah
sebelumnya umumnya diambil dari satu dua tempat yang dianggap mewakili. Tetapi
dengan proses pengeboran ini maka secara otomatis dapat dilakukan prediksi
kondisi tanah secara tepat, satu persatu pada titik yang dibor.Apabila
kedalaman dan juga lubang bor telah siap, maka selanjutnya adalah penempatan
tulangan rebar.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jika
pemasangan tulangan telah selesai, maka lubang bor siap untuk di cor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Setelah
proses pemasangan tulangan baja maka proses selanjutnya adalah pengecoran
beton. Ini merupakan bagian yang paling kritis yang menentukan berfungsi
tidaknya suatu pondasi. Meskipun proses pekerjaan sebelumnya sudah benar,
tetapi pada tahapan ini gagal maka gagal pula pondasi tersebut secara
keseluruhan. Pengecoran disebut gagal jika lubang pondasi tersebut tidak terisi
benar dengan beton, misalnya ada yang bercampur dengan galian tanah atau
segresi dengan air, tanah longsor sehingga beton mengisi bagian yang tidak
tepat. Adanya air pada lobang bor menyebabkan pengecoran memerlukan alat bantu
khusus, yaitu pipa tremi. Pipa tersebut mempunyai panjang yang sama atau lebih
besar dengan kedalaman lubang yang dibor. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6p4Fl1MIX2AfH97ZRnBNgsGZhHaXHpziAjoMfYUPlTP96ArpKQ3N5EjfqzboF9nLsw04pY5KwjDPLCyxynhuXyzwZX1y5xr-cZkLN03scC5ErCwM0dVffAfJVDp1GpOqp_avUQvY_M5Fk/s1600/14.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6p4Fl1MIX2AfH97ZRnBNgsGZhHaXHpziAjoMfYUPlTP96ArpKQ3N5EjfqzboF9nLsw04pY5KwjDPLCyxynhuXyzwZX1y5xr-cZkLN03scC5ErCwM0dVffAfJVDp1GpOqp_avUQvY_M5Fk/s320/14.jpg" width="258" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ujung
di bagian bawah agak khusus , tidak berlubang biasa tetapi ada detail khusus
sehingga lumpur tidak masuk kedalam tetapi beton di dalam pipa bisa mendorong
keluar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Setelah
pipa tremi berhasil dimasukkan ke lubang bor. Perhatikan ujung atas yang
ditahan sedemikian sehingga posisinya terkontrol (dipegang) dan tidak jatuh.
Corong beton dipasang. Pada kondisi pipa seperti ini maka pengecoran beton
siap. Truk readymix siap mendekat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Karena
pipa tremi tadi perlu dicabut lagi. Jadi kalau beton yang dituang terlalu
banyak maka jelas mencabut pipa yang tertanam menjadi susah. Sedangkan jika
terlalu dini mencabut pipa tremi, sedangkan beton pada bagian bawah belum
terkonsolidasi dengan baik, maka bisa-bisa terjadi segresi, tercampur dengan
tanah. Oleh karena itu dalam proses ini diperlukan pengalaman yang benar-benar
handal agar tidak terjadi kesalahan sedikitpun. Jika beton yang di cor sudah
semakin ke atas (volumenya semakin banyak) maka pipa tremi harus mulai ditarik
ke atas, karena pengecoran beton masih diteruskan maka diperlukan bucket karena
beton tidak bisa langsung dituang ke corong pipa tremi tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
Adanya pipa
tremi tersebut menyebabkan beton dapat disalurkan ke dasar lubang langsung dan
tanpa mengalami pencampuran dengan air atau lumpur. Karena BJ beton lebih besar
dari BJ lumpur maka beton makin lama makin kuat untuk mendesak lumpur naik ke
atas. Jadi pada tahapan ini tidak perlu takut dengan air atau lumpur. Gambar
foto di bawah menunjukkan air / lumpur mulai terdorong ke atas, lubang mulai
digantikan dengan beton segar tadi. Proses pengecoran ini memerlukan supply
beton yang continous, jika sampai terjadi setting maka pipa treminya bisa
tertanam dibawah dan tidak bisa dicabut. Sedangkan kalau dicabut terlalu dini maka
tiang beton bisa tidak continue.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumber : 1. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia,
ensiklopedia bebas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> 2.
Laporan Kerja Praktek mahasiswa Universitas Pelita Harapan ( UPH ) 2007 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> 3.
Skripsi Universitas Kristen Petra<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> 4.
Suryolelono K. Basah,1994, Teknik Pondasi Bagian 2, Yogyakarta, NAFIRI<o:p></o:p></span></div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-68621024855843742282011-03-11T00:05:00.002+07:002011-07-23T19:40:28.853+07:00TEGANGAN EFEKTIF<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"><b><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><b>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b>Pengertian<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">Berat tanah yang terendam air disebut berat tanah efektif, sedangkan tegangan yang terjadi akibat berat tanah efektif di dalam tanah disebut <b>tegangan efektif.</b><i> </i><span lang="SV">Pada tanah granuler, tanah pasir, dan kerikil dikenal dengan <b>tegangan intergranuler</b>. Tegangan efektif merupakan tegangan yang mempengaruhi kuat geser dan perubahan volume atau penurunan tanah.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><span lang="SV">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b><span lang="SV">Tegangan Efektif dan Tegangan Netral</span></b><span lang="SV"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span lang="SV">Terzaghi (1923) memberikan prisip tegangan efektif yang bekerja pada tanah jenuh air yang dinyatakan dalam persamaan :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251623424;"><span style="height: 38px; left: 23px; position: absolute; top: -1px; width: 102px;"> </span></span></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td bgcolor="aqua" height="38" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% aqua; border: 0.75pt solid black; vertical-align: top;" width="102"><span style="left: 0pt; position: absolute; z-index: 251623424;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td><div class="shape" style="padding: 4.35pt 7.95pt;" v:shape="_x0000_s1026"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span lang="SV">σ</span><span lang="ES-AR"> = </span><span lang="SV">σ</span><span lang="ES-AR">’ + u<o:p></o:p></span></div></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table></span> </td> </tr>
</tbody></table><span lang="SV"> (1.1)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV">dimana<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">σ = tegangan normal total pada suatu bidang di dalam massa tanah (tegangan akibat berat tanah total termasuk ruang pori, persatuan luas yang arahnya tegak lurus)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">u = tekanan pori (u), dikenal dengan tekanan netral yang bekerja ke segala arah sama besar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">σ’ = tegangan normal efektif (σ’), yaitu tegangan yang dihasilkan dari beban butiran tanah efektif per satuan bidang luas<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 38px; left: 0px; margin-left: 23px; margin-top: 107px; position: absolute; width: 102px; z-index: 251625472;"> </span></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td bgcolor="aqua" height="38" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% aqua; border: 0.75pt solid black; vertical-align: top;" width="102"><span style="left: 0pt; position: absolute; z-index: 251625472;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td><div class="shape" style="padding: 4.35pt 7.95pt;" v:shape="_x0000_s1027"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="SV">σ<sub>z</sub> = γ<sub>sat</sub> z</span><o:p></o:p></div></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table></span> </td> </tr>
</tbody></table><span lang="SV">Tegangan efektif dalam tanah dapat ditentukan dengan cara meninjau lapisan tanah dengan permukaan mendatar dan dengan permukaan air tanah pada permukaan. Tegangan vertikal total (σ<sub>z</sub>) merupakan tegangan normal pada bidang horisontal pada kedalaman z, dengan persamaan :<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV"> (1.2)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">σ<sub>z</sub> = kedalaman titik di dalam tanah<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">γ<sub>sat</sub> = berat volume tanah jenuh<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span lang="SV">Jika air tidak mengalir maka tekanan air pori pada sembarang kedalaman akan berupa tekanan hidrostatis. Karena itu pada kedalaman z tekanan pori (u), dapat didefinisikan :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 38px; left: 0px; margin-left: 23px; margin-top: 0px; position: absolute; width: 102px; z-index: 251626496;"> </span></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td bgcolor="aqua" height="38" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% aqua; border: 0.75pt solid black; vertical-align: top;" width="102"><span style="left: 0pt; position: absolute; z-index: 251626496;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td><div class="shape" style="padding: 4.35pt 7.95pt;" v:shape="_x0000_s1028"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="SV">u = γ<sub>w</sub> z</span><o:p></o:p></div></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table></span> </td> </tr>
</tbody></table><span lang="SV"> (1.3)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"><o:p> </o:p></span> </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXzMEhkC9b2CyjEpT6tggmMvQ3FDksZhI2_-_AMIIX4aSfEuVaVHH8uUmU8wHwu_ZMQvClNdrPg5NmWkbXgbtEnFP5AsKGvfiaUkYVFRFNc44fBfLR60Ablrq1FSFxVFpDVfgBdt6VwPWO/s1600/Picture8.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXzMEhkC9b2CyjEpT6tggmMvQ3FDksZhI2_-_AMIIX4aSfEuVaVHH8uUmU8wHwu_ZMQvClNdrPg5NmWkbXgbtEnFP5AsKGvfiaUkYVFRFNc44fBfLR60Ablrq1FSFxVFpDVfgBdt6VwPWO/s288/Picture8.png" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span lang="SV">Gambar 1.1</span></b><span lang="SV"> Tegangan efektif<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 27pt;"><span lang="SV">Menurut persamaan (1.1) tegangan vertikal efektif (σ<sub>z</sub>’) pada kedalaman z :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 27pt;"> </div><table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
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<tr> <td></td> <td bgcolor="aqua" height="98" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% aqua; border: 0.75pt solid black; vertical-align: top;" width="222"><span style="left: 0pt; position: absolute; z-index: 251642880;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td><div class="shape" style="padding: 4.35pt 7.95pt;" v:shape="_x0000_s1068"><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">σ</span><sub><span lang="ES-AR">z</span></sub><span lang="ES-AR">’ = </span><span lang="SV">σ</span><sub><span lang="ES-AR">z</span></sub><span lang="ES-AR"> – u <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV" style="color: cyan;">σ</span><sub><span lang="ES-AR" style="color: cyan;">z</span></sub><span lang="ES-AR" style="color: cyan;">’</span><span lang="ES-AR"> = z </span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="ES-AR">sat</span></sub><span lang="ES-AR"> – z </span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="ES-AR">w</span></sub><span lang="ES-AR"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV" style="color: cyan;">σ</span><sub><span lang="ES-AR" style="color: cyan;">z</span></sub><span lang="ES-AR" style="color: cyan;">’</span><span lang="ES-AR"> = (</span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="ES-AR">sat</span></sub><span lang="ES-AR"> – </span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="ES-AR">w</span></sub><span lang="ES-AR">) z<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="ES-AR"> </span><span lang="SV" style="color: cyan;">σ</span><sub><span lang="ES-AR" style="color: cyan;">z</span></sub><span lang="ES-AR" style="color: cyan;">’</span><span lang="ES-AR">= </span><span lang="SV">γ’ z</span><span lang="ES-AR"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div></td> </tr>
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="SV"> (1.4)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV">dengan γ’ merupakan berat volume apung atau berat volume tanah efektif saat tanah terendam air.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 38px; left: 0px; margin-left: 23px; margin-top: 105px; position: absolute; width: 186px; z-index: 251643904;"> </span></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td bgcolor="aqua" height="38" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% aqua; border: 0.75pt solid black; vertical-align: top;" width="186"><span style="left: 0pt; position: absolute; z-index: 251643904;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td><div class="shape" style="padding: 4.35pt 7.95pt;" v:shape="_x0000_s1069"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="SV">σ = σ’ + u<sub>a</sub> – X (u<sub>a</sub> - u<sub>w</sub>)</span><o:p></o:p></div></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table></span> </td> </tr>
</tbody></table><span lang="SV"> Tekanan air pori (u<sub>w</sub>) harus lebih kecil daripada tegangan yang terjadi dalam udara (u<sub>a</sub>) akibat tarikan permukaan. Sehingga Bishop (1995) mengusulkan persamaan hubungan tegangan total(σ) dan tegangan efektif (σ’) untuk tanah jenuh :<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV"> (1.5)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzWWENpY61UhCSkmpuo_1-44fSAXkQCO8LR3bPuK50RdXhBCjKsedEIrmWyF5UpQamm7P5CutHeH1zdPkcLzLPBkUzGGfA0fYgtbhIEdPmQ4uPre3Dpm4nVrVpeRt1KHDSu5RXrAR3XpMW/s288/Picture7.png" /></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="SV">Gambar 1.2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="SV">dengan :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">X = parameter yang ditentukan secara ekperimental<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">u<sub>w</sub> = tekanan air pori<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">u<sub>a</sub> = tekanan udara dalam pori<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="SV">Untuk tanah jenuh (S = 1) nilai X = 1 untuk tanah kering sempurna (S = 0) maka X = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><b><span lang="SV">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="SV">Tegangan pada Tanah Jenuh Air tanpa Rembesan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQE8xU0FIUgJqM7mZmmL-XMeBClJ22D986iFYxcZtQJGm3bteKRFO9a9JXhyL3UR_4g6dFhM1ezIRAC-TFMzHLeCUdcKYG0HhpRvsqfTfbILZWII53ClqVl7vfS2yKcSCyEhFQn28-t3Gg/s288/Picture6.png" /></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="SV">Gambar 1.3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="SV">Pada gambar 1.3 menunjukan suatu massa tanah jenuh air di dalam suatu tabung tanpa adanya rembesan air ke segala arah. Tegangan total di titik A dapat dihitung dengan cara :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251644928;"><span style="height: 38px; left: 23px; position: absolute; top: -1px; width: 198px;"> </span></span></div><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td bgcolor="aqua" height="38" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% aqua; border: 0.75pt solid black; vertical-align: top;" width="198"><span style="left: 0pt; position: absolute; z-index: 251644928;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td><div class="shape" style="padding: 4.35pt 7.95pt;" v:shape="_x0000_s1070"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="SV">σ</span><span lang="PT-BR"> = H </span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">w</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR"> + (H<sub>A</sub> - H) </span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">sat</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table></span> </td> </tr>
</tbody></table><span lang="SV"> (1.6)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV">dimana<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">σ = tegangan total pada titik A<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">γ<sub>w</sub> = berat volume air<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub>sat</sub> = berat volume tanah jenuh air<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">H = tinggi muka air diukur dari permukaan tanah di dalam bidang<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">H<sub>A</sub> = jarak antara titik A dan muka air<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="SV">Tegangan total (σ) dari persamaan (1.6) dapat dibedakan menjadi dua, yaitu :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="SV">a)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV">Bagian yang diterima oleh air di dalam ruang pori yang menerus (tegangan ini bekerja ke segala arah sama besar)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="SV">b)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV">Sisa dari tegangan total dipikul oleh butiran tanah padat pada titik-titik sentuhnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><b><span lang="SV">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="SV">Tegangan pada Tanah Jenuh Air dengan Rembesan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="SV">Tegangan efektif pada suatu titik akan mengalami perubahan dikarenakan oleh adanya rembesan air yang melaluinya. Tegangan efektif ini akan bertambah besar atau kecil tergantung pada arah rembesan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="SV">a)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV">Rembesan ke Atas<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_QPxtPIDc5ghOUMXLxN9ZzpGsAGjHLb22eWNM7CDMFWJvXm-OInvwtq7pIflHm2IECUaZz7Z8PpmDS4GMllz_ruZwlfnFtPwS813PXsVuEiUTo1BznHMJqUPH0AMdCguS1Fu0mEflxEz7/s288/Picture5.png" /></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="SV">Gambar 1.4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV">Pada gambar 1.4 menunjukan suatu lapisan tanah berbutir di dalam silinder dimana terdapat rembesan air ke atas yang disebabkan adanya penambahan air melalui saluran pada dasar silinder.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span lang="PT-BR">Pada titik A</span></i></b><b><span lang="PT-BR"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="PT-BR">Tegangan total (</span><span lang="SV">σ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">A</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR">) = H<sub>1</sub></span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">w<o:p></o:p></span></sub></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="PT-BR">Tekaan air pori (u<sub>A</sub>) = H<sub>1</sub></span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">w<o:p></o:p></span></sub></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="PT-BR">Tegangan efektif (</span><span lang="SV">σ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">A</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR">’)= </span><span lang="SV">σ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">A</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR"> - u<sub>A</sub> = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span lang="PT-BR">Pada titik B</span></i></b><b><span lang="PT-BR"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="PT-BR">Tegangan total (</span><span lang="SV">σ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">B</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR">) = H<sub>1</sub></span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">w </span></sub><span lang="PT-BR">+ H<sub>2</sub></span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">sat</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="PT-BR">Tekaan air pori (u<sub>B</sub>) = (H<sub>1</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> + h) </span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">w<o:p></o:p></span></sub></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="PT-BR">Tegangan efektif (</span><span lang="SV">σ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">B</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR">’)= </span><span lang="SV">σ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">B</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR"> – u<sub>B</sub> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="PT-BR"> = H<sub>2</sub></span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">sat</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR"> - </span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">w</span></sub><span lang="PT-BR"> - h </span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">w<o:p></o:p></span></sub></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="PT-BR"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="SV">b)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV">Rembesan ke Bawah<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRJK1cL3wYJyMudWKBCpWGKA-GfoxXGLCfQVVdKnhyphenhyphenV6JzE2jhgeGkphMGw9Kqd3lrFflNwD-yv9KP6peWSL6qPz06GteZUW7OGK7gpJPKyYKs2Y9hWJTYMaH_1Y6MTEfYhB-LSi9zD6Ex/s288/Picture4.png" /></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span lang="SV">Gambar 1.5<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV">Keadaan di mana terdapat rembesan air ke bawah dapat dilihat dalam gambar 1.5. Ketinggian air di dalam silinder diusahakan tetap, hal ini diatur dengan cara menambahkan air dari atas dan pengaliran air ke luar melalui dasar selinder.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV">Tegangan total (σ<sub>B</sub>) = H<sub>1</sub>γ<sub>w </sub>+ zγ<sub>sat</sub> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV">Tekaan air pori (u<sub>B</sub>) = (H<sub>1</sub> + z – iz)γ<sub>w<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV">Tegangan efektif (σ<sub>B</sub>’)= σ<sub>B</sub> – u<sub>B</sub> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="height: 38px; left: 0px; margin-left: 179px; margin-top: 22px; position: absolute; width: 110px; z-index: 251645884;"><img height="38" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1071" width="110" /></span><span lang="SV"> = (H<sub>1</sub>γ<sub>w </sub>+ zγ<sub>sat</sub>) – (H<sub>1</sub> + z – iz) γ<sub>w</sub> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="SV"> </span></b><b><span lang="PT-BR">= </span></b><span lang="PT-BR">z</span><span lang="PT-BR"> </span><span lang="SV">γ’ </span><span lang="PT-BR">+ iz</span><span lang="PT-BR"> </span><span lang="SV">γ</span><sub><span lang="PT-BR">w </span></sub><span lang="PT-BR">(1.7)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><b><span lang="SV">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="SV">Penggelembungan pada Tanah yang Disebabkan oleh Rembesan di Sekeliling Turap<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="SV">Gaya rembesan per satuan volume tanah dapat dihitung untuk memeriksa kemungkinan keruntuhan suatu turap di mana rembesan dalam tanah dapat menyebakan penggelemmbungan (heave) pada daerah hilir sesuai yang ditunjukan oleh gambar 1.6. Terzaghi (1992) menyimpulkan bahwa penggelembungan udara pada umumnya terjadi pada daerah sejauh D/2 dari turap (di mana D adalah kedalaman pemancangan turap).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="SV"> FS = <o:p></o:p></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: normal;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="24" /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="SV"><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjv2uhTo4dDnW4Q2pczgWhRNZVeqUJaTAEOxJyXoeO6LWna537q1Q6J7JrTLGREnZgD6wKsLrS6dGCRu0xt7Fidgj2-_t80oPw3kPCNI8IQUW3pPlne5oYdOJ53snsazK_xC4ZXIbEIWU8M/s1600/Picture3.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjv2uhTo4dDnW4Q2pczgWhRNZVeqUJaTAEOxJyXoeO6LWna537q1Q6J7JrTLGREnZgD6wKsLrS6dGCRu0xt7Fidgj2-_t80oPw3kPCNI8IQUW3pPlne5oYdOJ53snsazK_xC4ZXIbEIWU8M/s288/Picture3.png" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span lang="SV"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="SV">Gambar 1.6<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV">Dimana :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">FS = faktor keamanan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><span lang="SV">W’ = berat tanah basah di daerah gelembung per satuan lebar turap<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 14.2pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;"><b><span lang="SV">6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="SV">Penentuan Zona Potensi Likuifasi di Kota Maumere dengan Pendekatan Tegangan Efektif Melalui Metoda Poroelastisitas dan Elemen Hingga<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="SV">Ketika pasir lepas jenuh mengalami getaran gempa maka tekanan air pori akan meningkat. Kenaikan ini akan mengurangi tegangan efektif tanah dan apabila terus berlanjut maka tegangan efektif akan menjadi nol sehingga tanah kehilangan kekuatannya. Kondisi ini disebut Likuffaksi. Kerugian yang diakibatkan likuifaksi sangat besar, oleh karena itu perlu dibuat suatu peta kerentanan likuifaksi pada daerah tertentu terutama yang terletak di daerah berpasir yang rawan gempa dan memiliki arti strategis tertentu. Penentuan zona kerentanan likuifaksi sangat bermanfaat karena membantu para perancang bangunan-bangunan sipil dalam menentukan lokasi proyeknya dan menentukan perlakuan-perlakuan apa saja yang diperlukan untuk menanggulangi fenomena ini. <br />
Penentuan zone potensi likuifaksi yang digunakan adabab dengan analisis tegangan efektif melalui Metoda Karakteristik yang berdasarkan konsep poroelastisitas dan analisis dinamik. Hasil yang didapat menunjukkan rawannya daerah pantai terhadap bahaya likuifaksi yang diindikasikan dengan turunnya tegangan efektif mendekati nol.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="SV">Soal – soal :<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="height: 86px; margin-left: 407px; margin-top: 79px; position: absolute; width: 2px; z-index: 251659264;"><img height="86" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1116" width="2" /></span><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 93px; margin-top: 91px; position: absolute; width: 317px; z-index: 251657216;"></span><span style="height: 86px; margin-left: 93px; margin-top: 79px; position: absolute; width: 2px; z-index: 251658240;"><img height="86" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1115" width="2" /></span><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 93px; margin-top: 127px; position: absolute; width: 316px; z-index: 251656192;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image023.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1113" width="316" /></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 338px; margin-top: 151px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251652096;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 261px; margin-top: 151px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251651072;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 218px; margin-top: 151px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251650048;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 179px; margin-top: 151px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251649024;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 143px; margin-top: 151px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251648000;"></span><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 93px; margin-top: 151px; position: absolute; width: 316px; z-index: 251646976;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image023.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1072" width="316" /></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 105px; margin-top: 151px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251655168;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 299px; margin-top: 151px; position: absolute; width: 24px; z-index: 251654144;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 381px; margin-top: 151px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251653120;"></span><b><span lang="SV"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">1. Hitung tegangan total dan tegangan efektif di A apabila γ<sub>sat</sub> = 10 kN/m<sup>3</sup> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"> </div><table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td height="15" width="111"></td> <td width="5"></td> <td width="14"></td> <td width="7"></td> <td width="277"></td> <td width="12"></td> </tr>
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<tr> <td height="2"></td> <td></td> <td align="left" rowspan="6" valign="top"></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="10"><img height="72" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqVX4ZfOHpF8WFC1qJaO2SCXu6r57SaYMj-QESII-eT22RA0hFO_yldgGRvEEJi-30YlIs21fHOEq5nRZJQFmtqAUwi_bs1pif2bupoz7A6zd3kltHeF2-cWQKECaZh90eR0WzBul2n5af/s400/Picture2.png" width="400" /></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="2"></td> <td align="left" colspan="3" valign="top"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1120" width="26" /></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="10"></td> </tr>
<tr> <td height="2"></td> <td></td> <td align="left" valign="top"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image030.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1121" width="14" /></td> </tr>
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</tbody></table><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> Jawab :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV">Tegangan Total<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">σ<sub>A</sub> = (1 x 10) + (3 x 9,8) <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> = 39.43 kN/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV">Tekanan Air Pori<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">u<sub>a</sub> = 4 x 9,8<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> = 39,2 kN/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV">Tegangan Efektif<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">σ’ = σ<sub>A</sub> - u<sub>a</sub> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV" style="color: white;">σ’</span><span lang="SV"> = 39.43 – 39,2<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV" style="color: white;">σ’</span><span lang="SV"> = 0,23 kN/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">2. Hitung tegangan efektif di A apabila γ<sub>sat</sub> = 15 kN/m<sup>3</sup> dan γ<sub>b</sub> = 10 kN/m<sup>3</sup> apabila <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"> a. permukaan air di (a)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 132px; margin-top: 68px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 251685888;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1174" width="14" /></span><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 127px; margin-top: 56px; position: absolute; width: 26px; z-index: 251684864;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image034.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1173" width="26" /></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 139px; margin-top: 32px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 251683840;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 127px; margin-top: 32px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 251682816;"></span><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 127px; margin-top: 32px; position: absolute; width: 26px; z-index: 251681792;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image034.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1170" width="26" /></span><span style="height: 64px; margin-left: 414px; margin-top: 43px; position: absolute; width: 12px; z-index: 251679744;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 277px; margin-top: 104px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251672576;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 234px; margin-top: 104px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251671552;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 195px; margin-top: 104px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251670528;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 159px; margin-top: 104px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251669504;"></span><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 109px; margin-top: 104px; position: absolute; width: 316px; z-index: 251668480;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image040.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1125" width="316" /></span><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 109px; margin-top: 44px; position: absolute; width: 317px; z-index: 251678720;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image041.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1167" width="317" /></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 121px; margin-top: 104px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251676672;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 315px; margin-top: 104px; position: absolute; width: 24px; z-index: 251675648;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 397px; margin-top: 104px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251674624;"></span><span style="height: 14px; margin-left: 354px; margin-top: 104px; position: absolute; width: 23px; z-index: 251673600;"></span> b. permukaan air di (b)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"> </div><div class="MsoNormal"><img height="113" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEis4-Mz6eGvQT4m0sSgsAhySccYf4PGzsUO3i5HCYRGpiOQQ1K83wWXqeC4S4bOnjyEGXUO99nmxdd3NXbL4yfUcWZ05oLAzn-Fa8c2YMQt-RoBIIv2ldzLUny1IysAGvbS0YOvUgm1aSs0/s400/Picture1.png" width="400" /></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> Jawab :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="SV">a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV">Tegangan di A<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">σ<sub>A</sub> = 2 γ<sub>b</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> = 20 kN/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">u<sub>a</sub> = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">σ’ = σ<sub>A</sub> - u<sub>a</sub> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV" style="color: white;">σ’</span><span lang="SV"> = 20– 0<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV" style="color: white;">σ’</span><span lang="SV"> = 20 kN/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="SV">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV">Tegangan di A<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">σ<sub>A</sub> = 2 γ<sub>sat </sub>+ 2 γ<sub>w</sub> <sub><o:p></o:p></sub></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> = (2 x 15) + (2 x 9,8)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> = 49,6 kN/m<sup>2</sup> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">u<sub>a</sub> = 4 γ<sub>w</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> = 4 x 9.8<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV"> = 39,2 kN/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV">σ’ = σ<sub>A</sub> - u<sub>a</sub> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV" style="color: white;">σ’</span><span lang="SV"> = 49.6 – 39.2<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="SV" style="color: white;">σ’</span><span lang="SV"> = 10,4 kN/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-85338096088986761692011-03-10T22:15:00.000+07:002011-03-10T22:15:18.719+07:00pengertian tanah<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 19px;"><i>setelah sekian lama vacum dari dunia maya,, akhirnya ada waktu juga bat blogging,,</i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 19px;"><i>hhallloo prennd ayok kita lanjut blajarnya lagi.,</i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 19px;"><i>kl ini tentang Mekanika tanah 1.</i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 19px;"><i>mungkin ini pendahuluan dari materinya.</i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 19px;"><i>slamat belajar ^^</i></span></div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: right;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span></i></div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: right;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">By:Gartha Wisma’Taz’</span></i><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">I. Pengetian<br />
Tanah adlh :<o:p></o:p></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">kumpulan (agregat) butirann mineral alami yg bisa dipisahkan oleh suatu cara mekanik bila agregat tersebut diaduk dalam air. <o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">kumpulan mineral, bahan organic dan endapan2 yang relative lepas (loose), yang terletak diatas batuan dasar (bad rock).<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">Proses pembentukan tanah secara fisik yang mengubah batuan menjadi partikel yang lebih kecil disebabkan pengaruh erosi, angin, air, es, manusia, cuaca / suhu. Partikelnya berbentuk bulat, bergerigi. Pembentukan tanah secara kimia terjadi oleh pengaruh oksigen, karbondioksida, air (mengandung asam / alkali).<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">Jenis2 tanah untuk klasifikasi tanah dilapangan<o:p></o:p></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">pasir dan kerikil<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>yaitu agregat tak berkohesi yang tersusun dari vregmin2 sub anguler / angular. Partrikel berukuran sampai 1/8 inci dinamakan pasir dan yg berukuran 1/8 inci sampai 6/8 inci disebut kerikil. Fragmen bergaris tengah lebih bwesar dari 8 inci disebut boulders (bongkah).<o:p></o:p></div><ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Hardpan<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Yaitu tnh yg tahanan trhdp penetrasi alat pemboran besar sekali. Cirinya sebagian besar dijumpai dlm keadaan bergradasi baik, luar biasa padat, dan mrpkan agregat partikel mineral yg kohesif.<o:p></o:p></div><ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Lanau anorganik (inorganic silt)<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Merpkn tnh berbutir halus dengan plastisitas kecil/sama sekali tak ada. Jenis yg plastisitasnya plg kecil bysanya mngndung butiran<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>kuarsa sedimensi, yg kadang2 disebut: tepung batuan (rockfluor),sdgkn yg sgt plastis mngndung prtikel berwujud serpihan & dikenal sbg Lanau plastis.<o:p></o:p></div><ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Lanau organic<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">Mrpkan tnh agak plastis, berbutir halus dgn campuran prtkel2 bhn organic trpsah secara halus. Warna tnh bervariasi dari abu2 terang ke abu2 sgt gelap, di smping itu mgkn mngndung H<sub>2</sub>S,CO<sub>2</sub>, serta brbgai gas lain hsl peluruhan tmbuhan yg <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;"><br />
</div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: right;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">By:Gartha Wisma’Taz’</span></i><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">akan mMbrikan bau khas kpd tnh. Permeabilitas Lanau organic sgt rendah sdgkn kompresibilitasnya sgt tinggi. <span style="mso-tab-count: 4;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div><ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Lempung<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Mrpkan agregat prtikel2 berukuran mikroskopik & submikroskopik yg brasal dr pembusukan kimiawi unsur2 penyusun batuan, dan brsifat plastis dlm selang kadar air sedang sampai luas. Dalam keadaan kering sangat keras, dan tak mudah terkelupas hanyta dengan jari tangan . permebilitas lempung sangat rendah.<o:p></o:p></div><ol start="6" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">lempung organic<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">merupakan lempung yang sebagian sifat2 fifis pentingnya dipengaruhi aadanya bahan organic yang terpisah dalam keadaan jenuh lempung organic cenderung bersifat sangat kopresibel tapi pada keadaan kering kekuatannya sangat tinggi. Warnanya abu2 tua atau hitam, berbau menyolok.<o:p></o:p></div><ol start="7" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Gambut<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(peat)<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Merupakan agregat agak berserat yang berasal dari serpihan makroskopik dan mikroskopik tumbuh2an. Warnanya coklat terang dan hitam bersifat kompresibel , sehingga tak mungkin menopang pondasi.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">Sifat2 agregat pasir & kerikil diistilahkan sbb:<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->lepas (loose)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->sedang (medium)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->padat (dense)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">sedangkan untuk lempung adlh:<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->keras (hard)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->kaku (stiff)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->sedang (medium)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->lunak (soft)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">Berdasarkan asal mulanya, tanah dapat dibedakan dalam dua kelompok :<o:p></o:p></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">sebagai hasil pelapukan atau weathering secara fisis dan kimia<o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">berasal dari bahan organic<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: right;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">By:Gartha Wisma’Taz’</span></i><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">jenis tanah berdasarkan hasil pelapukan :<o:p></o:p></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">tanah residual, apabila hasil pelkapukan masih berada ditempat asalnya. Cirinya tanahnya kaku dan stabil serta tidak meluas kedalaman yang besar untuk didaerah iklim sedang.<span style="mso-tab-count: 5;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span><o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">tanah angkutan, apabila hasil pelapukan telah berpindah tempat, cirinya endapan tanah angkutan bersifat lunak dan lepas hingga kedalaman beberapa ratus meter dan dapat menimbulkan berbagai masalah serius.<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">II. Klasifikasi Tanah<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Dua system klasifikasi tanah yg sering digunakan, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Unified Soil Classification System <o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">AASHTO (American Association of <st1:street w:st="on"><st1:address w:st="on">State Highway</st1:address></st1:street> and Transportation Officials).<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list 39.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Sistem Klasifikasi Unified<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->tanah berbutir kasar (kerikil dan pasir), jika kurang dr 50% lolos saringan nomor 200.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Tanah berbutir halus(lanau dan lempung), jika lebih dr 50% lolos saringan nomer 200.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Simbol2 yg sering digunakan dalam kelompok dan subklmpok klasifikasi tnh ini adlh:<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->G<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>=<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>kerikil (gravel)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->S<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>=<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pasir (sand)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->C<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>=<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>lanau (silt)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->O<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>=<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>lanau/lempung organic (organic silt or clay)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Pt<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>=<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>tnh gambut dan tnh organic tnggi (peat & highly organic soil)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->W<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= Gradasi baik (well-graded)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->P<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>=<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>gradasi buruk (poorly-graded)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->H<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>=<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Plastisitas tinggi (high-plasticity)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->L<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>=<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Plastisitas rendah (low- Plasticity)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: right; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">By:Gartha Wisma’Taz’</span></i><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">Tabel 2.1.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">Klasifikasi tnh berbutir halus brdsrkan USCS<o:p></o:p></div><table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 23.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 480;"><tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;"> <td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 87.3pt;" valign="top" width="116"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Kelompok<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Kekuatan kering<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Reaksi trhdp uji guncangan<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Kekerasan pada bts cair<o:p></o:p></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 87.3pt;" valign="top" width="116"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">ML<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Tdk ada-sgt rendah<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Cepat-lambat<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Tidak ada<o:p></o:p></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 87.3pt;" valign="top" width="116"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">CL<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Sedang-tinggi<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Tdk ada-sgt lambat<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Sedang<o:p></o:p></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 87.3pt;" valign="top" width="116"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">OL<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Sgt rendah-sedang<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">lambat<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Sedikit<o:p></o:p></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 87.3pt;" valign="top" width="116"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">MH<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Sgt rendah-sedang<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Lambat-tidak ada<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Sedikit-sedang<o:p></o:p></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 87.3pt;" valign="top" width="116"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">CH<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Tinggi-sgt tinggi<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Tdk ada<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Tinggi<o:p></o:p></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 87.3pt;" valign="top" width="116"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">OH<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Sedang-tinggi<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Tdk ada-sgt rendah<o:p></o:p></div></td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;" valign="top" width="148"> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Sedikit-sedang<o:p></o:p></div></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list 39.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->system klasifikaasi AASHTO <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">system klasifikasi ini berguna untuk menentukan kualitas tanah dalam perancangan timbunan jln, subbase, dan subgrade.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">III. PEMADATAN<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">Yaitu peristiwa bertmbahnya berat V kerimg oleh beban dinamis. Karen beba dinamis, butir2 tnh mrapat 1 sama lain sgb akibat brkurangnya rongga udara.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">Maksud pemadatan tanah adalah antara lain :<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Mempertinggi kuat geser tanah<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->mengurangi sifat mudah mampat (kompresibilitas).<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->mengurangi permeabilitas.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 54.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Mengurangi perubahan volume sebagai akibat perubahan kadar air dll.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">Tingkat kepadatan tanah diukur dari nilai berat volume keringnya (<span dir="RTL" lang="AR-SA">ﻻ</span><sub>d</sub>). Berat volume kering tidak berubah oleh adanya kenaikan kadar air. Dengan demikian tanah yang selesai di padatkan di lapangan, dan kemudian berubah kadar airnya maka berat volume kering tidak berubah, sepanjang volume total tanah tetap. Hal ini karena kepadatan/ berat volume kering dinyatakan oleh<span dir="RTL" lang="AR-SA" style="mso-ansi-font-weight: bold;">ﻻ</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><sub>d = </sub>Ws/V</b>, bila berat butiran (Ws) dan volume total (V) tetap maka <span dir="RTL" lang="AR-SA">ﻻ</span><sub>d </sub>juga tetap.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">Tanah granuler memberikan kuat geser yg tinggi dg sdkit prbhan volume sesudah dipadatkn.Permeabilitas tnh granuler yg tinggi dpt mnguntungkn/merugikan.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">Tanah lanau yg dipadatkn akn stabil & mampu mMberikn kuat geser yg cukup sdikit kecenderungan prubahn V. Tapi, lanau sgt sulit dipadatkn bila keadaan basah krn permeabilitasnya rendah.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">Tnh lempung yg dipadatkan dg cara yg benar akn dpt mMberikn kuat geser tinggi. Stabilitas trhdp kembang-susut trgntung dr jnis mineral yg trkndung. Cth, lempung Montmorillonite akan Mmpunyai kcnderungan yg lbh besar<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>thdp prubahn V disbanding dg lempung kaolinite. Lempung padat mMpnuyai permeabilitas yg rendah & tnh ini tdk dpt dipadatkn dg baik pd wktu sgt basah(jenuh). Bekerja dg tnh lempung yg sgt basah akn mengalami byk kesulitan, krn pd saat dipadatkn, air sulit mengalir ke luar drn rongga <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">pori</st1:city></st1:place> lempung. Air yg tdk mau klwr dr rongga <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">pori</st1:city></st1:place> tnh mMyebabkn butiran sulit merapat satu sama lain saat dipadatkn.<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /> <!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">3.1. Uji Pemadatan<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">Proctor (1933) tlh mengamati bahwa ada hubungan yg pasti antara kadar air & berat V kering tnh padat. Hubungan berat V kering (γ<sub>d</sub>) dg berat V basah (γ<sub>b</sub>) & kadar air (w), dinyatkn dlm prsamaanz: <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">γ<sub>d =<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></sub>γ<sub>b<o:p></o:p></sub></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line
id="_x0000_s1026" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;flip:y;
z-index:251657728' from="36pt,5.1pt" to="63pt,5.1pt" strokeweight="1pt"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 2px; left: 0px; margin-left: 47px; margin-top: 6px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 38px; z-index: 251657728;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/ARIESKA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1026" width="38" /></span><!--[endif]--><sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1 +</sub> w<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">Berat V kering setelah pmdatan bergantung pd jenis tnh, kadar air, usaha yg diberikn oleh alat penumbuknya. Berat V kering max. dinytakn sbg berat V kering dg tnpa rongga udara/berat V kering saat tnh mnjadi jenuh (γ<sub>zav</sub>), dpt dihitung dg persamaan :<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">γ<sub>zav =<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></sub><u>Gs<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>γ<sub> w</sub></u><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1 + wGs<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Karna saat tnh jenuh (S = 1) & e = wGs, maka :<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">γ<sub>zav =<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></sub><u>Gs<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>γ<sub> w</sub></u><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1 + e<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: right; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: right; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">By:Gartha Wisma’Taz’</span></i><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">Berat V kering kering (γ<sub>d</sub>) stlh pemadatan pd kadar air w dg kadar udara (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">air content</i>), A (A = Va/V= Vudara/V total) dpt dihitung dg prsamaan:<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">γ<sub>d = </sub>Gs (1-A)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>γ<sub> w</sub><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1+ wGs<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">3.2. Faktor2 Yang Mempengaruhi Hasil Pemadatan<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">a. Macam Tanah<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>seperti distribusi ukuran butir, btk butiran, berat jenis, mcm mineral lempung yg trdpt dalam tnh brpngaruh pd berat V max. & kadar air optimumnya.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-list: l3 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.</span><!--[endif]--> Usaha Pemadatan<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;">Energi pemadatan per satuan volume (E) dinyatakan :<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">E = <u>N<sub>b</sub>N<sub>t</sub>WH</u><o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>V<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">Di mana : Nb = jmlh pukulan per lapisan<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nt = jmlh lapisan<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>W = berat pukulan<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>H = tnggi jatuh pemukul<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>V = volume <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mould</i> ( 9,44 x 10<sup>-4</sup>m<sup>3</sup>)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>E = kJ/m<sup>3</sup><o:p></o:p></div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-9475471930487348372010-10-14T01:52:00.002+07:002010-10-14T01:52:52.908+07:00Klasifikasi bahan buangan udara<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:TargetScreenSize>800x600</o:TargetScreenSize> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="TableParagraph" style="margin: 2pt 0cm;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 24pt;">Klasifikasi bahan buangan udara</span></u></b></div><div class="TableParagraph" style="margin: 2pt 0cm;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 24pt;"><br />
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font-size:10.0pt;
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</div><h1>POLUTAN PARTIKULAT</h1><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Partikulat<span> </span>adalah pencemar udara yang dapat berada bersama - sama dengan bahan atau bentuk pencemar lainnya. Partikel dapat diartikan secara murni atau sempit sebagai bahan pencemar udara yang berbentuk padatan. Namun dalam pengertian yang lebih luas dalam kaitannya dengan masalah pencemaran lingkungan, pencemaran partikel dapat meliputi berbagai macam bentuk, mulai dari yang sederhana sampai dengan yang rumit atau kompleks yang kesemuanya merupakan bentuk pencemaran udara, diantaranya dapat berupa keadaan - keadaan sebagai berikut :</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1. <span> </span><i>Aerosol </i>adalah istilah umum yang menyatakan adanya partikel yang terhambur dan melayang diudara.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2.<i> <span> </span>Fog</i> atau <i>kabut</i> adalah aerosol yang berupa butiran-butiran air yang berada di udara.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3. <span> </span><i>Smoke</i> atau <i>asap</i> adalah aerosol yang berupa campuran antara butir padatan dan cairan yang terhambur melayang diudara.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">4.<span> </span><span> </span><i>Dust </i>atau <i>debu</i> adalah aerosol yang berupa butiran padat yang terhambur dan melayang di udara karena adanya hembusan angin.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">5.<i> <span> </span>Mist</i> artinya mirip dengan kabut. Penyebabnya adalah butiran-butiran zat cair yang terhambur dan melayang di udara (bukan butiran air).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">6. <span> </span><i>Fume </i>artinya mirip dengan asap hanya saja penyebabnya adalah aerosol yang berasal dari kondensasi uap panas (khususnya uap logam).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">7. <span> </span><i>Plume</i> adalah asap yang keluar dari cerobong asap suatu industri (pabrik). </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">8. <span> </span><i>Haze</i> adalah setiap bentuk aerosol yang mengganggu pandangan di udara.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">9. <span> </span><i>Smog</i><span> </span>adalah bentuk campuran antara smoke dan fog.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">10. <span> </span><i>Smaze</i> adalah bentuk campuran antar smoke dan haze.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="SV">Karbonmonoksida atau CO.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Karbonmonoksida adalah suatu gas yang tak berwarna, tidak berbau, dan juga tidak berasa.Gas CO dapat berbentuk cairan pada suhu dibawah minus 192<sup>o</sup>C.Gas CO sebagian besar berasal dari pembakaran bahan bakar fosil dengan udara, berupa gas buangan.Kota besar yang padat lalu - lintasnya akan banyak menghasilkan gas CO sehingga kadar CO dalam udara relatif tinggi dibandingkan dengan daerah pedesaan.Selain dari itu gas CO dapat pula terbentuk dari proses industri.Secara alamiah gas CO juga dapat terbentuk, walaupun jumlahnya relatif sedikit, seperti gas hasil kegiatan gunung berapi, proses biologi dan lain-lainnya.</span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="SV">Nitrogen Oksida atau NO<sub>x </sub><span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="SV">Nitrogen oksida sering disebut dengan NO<sub>x<span> </span></sub><span> </span>karena oksida nitrogen mempunyai 2 macam bentuk yang sifatnya berbeda, yaitu gas NO<sub>2</sub> dan NO. Sifat gas NO<sub>2 </sub>adalah berwarna (yaitu merah kecoklatan) dan berbau (tajam menyengat hidung), sedangkan gas NO tidak berwarna dan tidak berbau.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Belerang Oksida atau SO<sub>x</sub></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Gas belerang oksida atau SO<sub>x </sub>terdiri atas gas CO<sub>2 </sub>dan gas CO<sub>3</sub> yang keduanya mempunyai sifat berbeda. Gas CO<sub>2</sub> berbau tajam dan tidak mudah terbakar, sedangkan gas CO<sub>3<span> </span></sub>bersifat sangan reaktif dan mudah bereaksi dengan uap air yang ada diudara untuk membentu asam sulfat atau H<sub>2</sub> SO<sub>4</sub>. Asam Sulfat ini sangat reaktif, mudah bereaksi (memakan) benda-benda lain yang mengakibatkan kerusakan, seperti proses pengkaratan (korosi) dan proses kimia lainnya.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Hidrokarbon atau HC.</span></u></b><u><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"></span></u></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Hidrokarbon atau sering disingkat dengan HC adalah pencemaran udara yang dapat berupa gas, cairan maupun padatan.Dinamakan hidrokarbon karena penyusun utamanya adalah atom karbon dan atom hidrogen yang dapat terikat ( tersusun) secara ikatan lurus (ikatan rantai) atau terikat secara ikatan cincin (ikatan tertutup). Jumlah atom karbon (C) dalam senyawa hidrokarbon akan menentukan bentuknya, apakah akan berbentuk gas, cairan, ataukan padatan. Pada suhu kamar umumnya HC suku rendah (jumlah atom C sedikit) akan berbentuk gas, HC suku menengah (jumlah atom C sedang) akan berbentuk cairan, dan HC suku tinggi (jumlah atom C banyak) akan berbentuk padatan. </span></div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-30140253251521377552010-10-14T01:49:00.001+07:002010-10-14T01:53:46.314+07:00Klasifikasi Pencemar atau Polutan<h3 style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: large;">Klasifikasi Pencemar atau Polutan</span></h3><h3 style="color: red;"> </h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1.35pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Secara umum penyebab pencemaran udara ada 2 macam, yaitu :</span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent2"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent2"><span lang="SV"> a. Faktor internal (secara alamiah), contoh :</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.2pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1. Debu yang beterbangan akibat tiupan angin.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2. Abu (debu) yang dikeluarkan dari letusan gunung berapi, berikut gas-gas vulkanik.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3. Proses pembusukan sampah organik dan lain-lain.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 46.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Faktor eksternal (karena ulah manusia), contoh :</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1. Hasil pembakaran bahan bakar fosil.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2 . Debu / serbuk dari kegiatan industri. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3. Pemakaian zat-zat kimia yang disemprotkan ke udara.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Komponen Pencemaran Udara.</span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Udara di daerah perkotaan dengan berbagai macam kegiatan industri dan perkembangan teknologi serta lalu - lintas yang padat, relatif sudah mengandung bermacam - macam zat pencemar dengan konsentrasi yang besarnya bervariasi.. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Dari berbagai macam komponen pencemar udara, yang paling banyak berpengaruh dalam pencemaran udara adalah komponen - komponen yang terlihat pada tabel berikut ;</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
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<tr> <td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 32.4pt;" valign="top" width="43"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">No.</span></b></div></td> <td style="border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Bahan Pencemar</span></b></div></td> <td style="border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 243pt;" valign="top" width="324"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.6pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Jenis Gangguan yang ditimbulkan</span></b></div></td> </tr>
<tr> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 32.4pt;" valign="top" width="43"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">KarbonMonoksida(CO)</span></b> </div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 243pt;" valign="top" width="324"><div class="MsoListBullet2">Kapasitas angkut O<sub>2</sub> darah menurun</div><div class="MsoListBullet2">Gangguan janin dalam kandungan.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
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<tr> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 32.4pt;" valign="top" width="43"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Nitrogen Oksida </span></b></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 243pt;" valign="top" width="324"><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="SV">Gangguan pembuluh darah jantung.</span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="SV">Fungsi panca indera berkurang.</span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="SV">Penyakit paru (emphysema).</span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="SV">Penyakit pembuluh darah jantung.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
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<tr style="height: 112.45pt;"> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 112.45pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 32.4pt;" valign="top" width="43"></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 112.45pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Belerang Oksida (SO<sub>X</sub>)</span></b> </div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 112.45pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 243pt;" valign="top" width="324"><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="SV">Radang ginjal kronis.</span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="SV">Bronchitis.</span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="SV">Gangguan sensotik & pernafasan.</span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="FI">Kerusakan bangunan (korosi).</span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="FI">Gejala penyakit jantung.</span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="FI">Kerusakan bangunan (korosi).</span></div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span lang="FI">Pandangan kabur.</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.4pt;"> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 18.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 32.4pt;" valign="top" width="43"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 18.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Hidro Karbon (HC)</span></b></div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 18.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 243pt;" valign="top" width="324"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -23.4pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Iritasi mata dan pernafasan</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 71.5pt;"> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 71.5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 32.4pt;" valign="top" width="43"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 71.5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 153pt;" valign="top" width="204"><h4 style="line-height: normal;">Partikel</h4></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 71.5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 243pt;" valign="top" width="324"><div class="MsoListBullet2">Pengurangan penglihatan</div><div class="MsoListBullet2">Pengotoran bangunan dan makanan</div><div class="MsoListBullet2">Iritasi saluran pernafasan (ISPA) </div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent2"><span lang="IT">Komponen pencemar tersebut dapat mencemari udara secara sendiri -sendiri, maupun secara bersama-sama. Jumlah komponen pencemar udara tergantung kepada sumbernya. Untuk mendapatkan gambaran tersebut, di bawah ini dapat dilihat data pencemaran udara di Amerika Serikat. Data ini diperoleh dari hasil pengukuran pada tahun 1968. </span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent2"><br />
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</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Sumber Pencemar Udara di AS tahun 1968</span></b><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Jumlah Komponen Pencemar (Juta Ton/Tahun)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Sumber Pencemaran </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">CO NO<sub>X</sub> SO<sub>X</sub> HC Partikel Total</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Transportasi 63,8 8,1 0,8 16,6 1,2 90,5</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Industri 9,7 0,2 7,3 4,6 7,5 29,3</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembuangan Sampah 7,8 0,6 0,1 1,6 1,1 11,2</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembakaran Stationer 1,9 10,0 24,4 0,7 8,9 45,9</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Lain - lain 16,9 1,7 0,6 8,5 9,6 37,3</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 2pt 0cm;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Menteri Negara Kependudukan dan Lingkungan Hidup No. KEP-03/MENKLH/II/1991 tanggal 1 Februari 1991 (Tabel 8.4).</span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><b><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Tabel 8.4. Baku Mutu Udara Ambien</span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> No. Parameter Waktu Pengukuran Baku Mutu </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 1. Sulfur dioksida (SO<sub>3</sub>) 24 jam 0,1 ppm (260 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">g/m<sup>3 </sup>)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 2. Karbon Monoksida (CO) 8 jam 20 ppm (2260 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">g/m<sup>3</sup>) </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 3. Oksigen Oksida 24 jam 0,05 ppm (92,5</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">g/m<sup>3</sup>)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 4. Oksidan (O3) 1 jam 0,10 ppm(200 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">g/m<sup>3</sup>)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 5. Debu 24 jam 0,26 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">g/m<sup>3 </sup></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;"><sup><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></sup><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">6. Timah Hitam 24 jam 0,06 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">g/m<sup>3 </sup></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><sup><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></sup><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">7. Hidrogen Sulfida (H2S) 30 menit 0,03 ppm (42 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">g/m<sup>3 </sup>)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">8. Amonia 24 jam 2 ppm (1360 g/m<sup>3 </sup>)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> 9. Hidrokarbon 3 jam 0,24 ppm</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 2pt 0cm;"><br />
</div><h3 style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-7948031189208778762010-10-14T01:45:00.000+07:002010-10-14T01:45:12.336+07:00Pengertian Dasar Pencemaran Udara<span style="font-size: small;"></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:TargetScreenSize>800x600</o:TargetScreenSize> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 32.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><b><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pengertian Dasar Pencemaran Udara</span></u></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></b></span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent2"><span style="font-size: small;">Pencemaran udara diartikan sebagai adanya bahan - bahan atau zat - zat asing di dalam udara yang menyebabkan perubahan susunan (komposisi) udara dari keadaan normalnya. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Kehadiran bahan atau zat asing di dalam udara dalam jumlah tertentu serta dalam waktu yang cukup lama, akan dapat mengganggu kehidupan manusia, hewan dan binatang. Bila keadaan seperti tersebut terjadi, maka udara dikatakan telah tercemar.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 2pt 0cm;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Udara merupakan campuran beberapa macam gas yang perbandingannya tidak tetap, tergantung pada keadaan suhu udara, tekanan udara dan lingkungannya. Udara adalah juga atmosfir yang berada disekeliling bumi yang fungsinya sangat penting bagi kehidupan di dunia ini. Dalam udara terdapat oksigen (O<sub>2</sub>) untuk bernafas, karbondioksida (CO<sub>2</sub>) untuk proses fotosintesis oleh khlorofil daun dan ozone (O<sub>3</sub>) untuk menahan sinar ultra-violet.Susunan (komposisi)<b> </b>udara bersih dan kering, kira - kira tersusun oleh :</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Nitrogen<span> </span>(N<sub>2</sub>)<span> </span>=<span> </span>78,09 % volume</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Oksigen<span> </span>(O<sub>2</sub>)<span> </span>=<span> </span>21,94 %</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Argon<span> </span>(Ar)<span> </span>=<span> </span><span> </span>0,93 % </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Karbondioksida<span> </span>(CO<sub>2</sub>)<span> </span>=<span> </span><span> </span>0,032 % </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Zat lain yang terdapat dalam udara antara lain gas - gas mulia, nitrogen oksida, hidrogen, methana, belerang dioksida, amonia dan lain-lain.</span><span lang="IT"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 2pt 0cm;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 32.15pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><b><u><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pengaruh<span> </span>pencemaran udara terhadap<span> </span>kesehatan manusia</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Dari sejarah, efek pencemaran udara dimulai dari kota London dengan kabut pekatnya, Mexico (1950) dengan gas Hidrogen sulfida, Yokohama Jepang dengan “Asma Yokohama”, New York (USA) juga dengan asma karena pembakaran hutan sampai ke kota New York yang menyebabkan banyak kematian manusia karena pencemaran udara. <a name='more'></a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Ada empat masalah utama yang berhubungan dengan efek pencemaran udara pada kesehatan manusia yang belum terjawab, yaitu :</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Ambang batas yang diijinkan (Threshold).</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Kekuatan tubuh terhadap polutan (Total body burden of polution)</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="FR" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span lang="FR" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Masalah waktu versus dosis ( Time versus dosage problem)</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Efek yang bersinergi pada kombinasi polutan (Synergic effect of various combination of polutans)</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 55.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -19.5pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><b><u><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pada sistim pernapasan (Respiracy System)</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="SV">Udara tercemar masuk ke dalam tubuh melalui mulut sampai ke paru - paru kemudian terserap ke dalam aliran darah, menetap atau dapat disingkirkan dari paru - paru oleh sel rambut halus.Polutan gas dan partikel dapat merusak sistim pernapasan.</span></span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 55.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -19.5pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><b><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Efek pada tanaman.</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="SV">Tanaman akan rusak akibat pencemaran udara dalam tiga cara, yaitu :</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Necrosis (daun rontok)</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Chlorosis (luntur atau perubahan warna pada daun)</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Perubahan pertumbuhan (alteration in grouts)</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Penyebabnya adalah,</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Belerang dioksida menyebabkan warna polos pada daun, kerusakan rumput dan juga tanaman kapas, gandum dan apel, dll.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Fluorida juga menyebabkan Necrosis pada ujung-ujung daun.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Peroxy Asil Nitrat (PAN) menyebabkan daun-daun berwarna bronze (kelabu)</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 55.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -19.5pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><b><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Efek pada binatang</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Selain manusia, polusi/pencemaran udara juga mengakibatkan kematian pada binatang. Dimulai dari Donora dimana 20 % burung kenari dan 15 % dari anjing terinfeksi dan mati. Di Mexico sejumlah burung kenari, ayam, babi, angsa, bebek, anjing menjadi mati karena hidrogen sulfat dan juga pada daerah - daerah lain. Racun kronik umumnya diakibatkan dari tanaman yang telah terkontaminasi oleh polutan lalu dimakan oleh binatang sehingga menyebabkan kematian. Polutan yang terutama penyebab kematian adalah arsenik, timah dan molybdenum.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="FI">Akibat Pada Material</span></span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="FI">Akibat yang paling umum dari polusi udara pada material adalah mengotori permukaan bangunan, pakaian dan benda - benda lain</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Selain itu ada beberapa akibat dari pengotoran material yaitu,</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pengotoran dari endapan asap akan menyebabkan pemudaran warna dan penggelapan permukaan material.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span lang="IT" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Efek dari polusi udara pada logam adalah mempercepat korosi.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Efek lain dari asap (smoke) pada karet akan menyebabkan peretakan karet.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Efek sulfur pada pakaian dapat menyebabkan perubahan warna, luntur/pemudaran warna.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Hidrogen sulfat bereaksi dengan timah akan menyebabkan warna kelabu dan hitam pada material</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoListBullet2"><span style="font-size: small;">Akibat Pada Atmosfer</span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 27pt;"><span style="font-size: small;">Pengaruh langsung polusi udara khususnya partikulat adalah mengurangi penglihatan (visibility) pada pilot pesawat udara, sehingga menyulitkan pesawat untuk mendarat (landing) dan lepas landas (take-off).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 2pt 0cm 2pt 27pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Penyebabnya adalah karbondioksida sisa dari pembakaran bahan bakar fosil (minyak bumi, batubara, dan lain-lain).Selain itu pengaruh dari CO2 juga dapat mempengaruhi iklim/cuaca pada permukaan bumi.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pentingnya Penanggulangan Pencemaran Udara.</span></u></b><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"></span></u></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pengaruh pencemaran udara saat ini merupakan masalah serius yang dihadapi oleh negara - negara industri. Akibat yang ditimbulkan oleh pencemaran udara ternyata sangat merugikan. Pencemaran tersebut tidak hanya mempunyai akibat langsung terhadap kesehatan manusia saja, akan tetapi juga dapat merusak lingkungan lainnya, seperti disebutkan di atas</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">.</span></span></div><div class="MsoBodyTextIndent3" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Berdasarkan hasil penelitian di Amerika Serikat pada tahun 1980, kematian yang disebabkan oleh pencemaran udara mencapai angka kurang lebih 51.000 jiwa. Angka kematian tersebut cukup tinggi bila dibandingkan dengan angka kematian yang disebabkan oleh penyakit lainnya, seperti penyakit jantung, kanker, AIDS dan lain sebagainya. Menurut para ahli, pada sekitar tahun 2.000-an kematian yang disebabkan oleh pencemaran udara akan mencapai angka 57.000 orang per tahunnya. Selama 20 tahun angka kematian yang disebabkan oleh pencemaran udara naik mendekati 14 % atau mendekati 0,7 % per tahun. Selain itu kerugian materi yang disebabkan oleh pencemaran udara, apabila diukur dengan uang dapat mencapai nilai sekitar 12 - 16 juta US dollar per tahun ; jumlah yang sangat besar dan berarti bila dipergunakan untuk kesejahteraan umat manusia.</span></div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-41590959977024054502010-08-07T13:38:00.001+07:002010-08-07T13:45:57.880+07:00Interval Kepercayaan<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiySnvHLVTm00x_Vt-r89Ya_b80LN_8r6ddgrNDNBlDRN5OFF1IB10LsPd7-RGw0D0Q8QqrWLsEO4vDbsDK7mbLjbx8J8caimiFF5jwv_4v7zGpGP_8hnFXhHa2Cebk9lJN2_FjsOVg_tg5/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiySnvHLVTm00x_Vt-r89Ya_b80LN_8r6ddgrNDNBlDRN5OFF1IB10LsPd7-RGw0D0Q8QqrWLsEO4vDbsDK7mbLjbx8J8caimiFF5jwv_4v7zGpGP_8hnFXhHa2Cebk9lJN2_FjsOVg_tg5/s320/1.jpg" /></a></div><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="MsoNormal"><o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal">Pendahuluan <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"> Untuk mengetahui seberapa baik sebuah estimasi <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal">dilakukan, perlu diberikan rentang kepercayaan. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"> Rentang kepercayaan adalah sebuah estimasi untuk sebuah parameter populasi.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: #04617b; font-size: 24pt;">RENTANG KEPERCAYAAN DARI RATA-RATA SEBUAH DISTRIBUSI NORMAL, </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: #04617b; font-size: 12pt;">VARIANSI DIKETAHUI </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: #0bd0d9; font-family: 'Wingdings 2'; font-size: 12pt;">— </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Constantia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Misalkan bahwa X1, X2,, Xn adalah sebuah sample acak dari sebuah distribusi normal dengan rata-rata tidak diketahui dan variansi yang diketahui.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rata-rata sample </span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBulZl7BsH-y1sMFNTvgSi-MUsFieAIMA3UPZS-o031LxeOBd104deFJKLhSNbLozlKBbjUPrX069bZpgqJfHZfzB2T3p579Om_nDHPssyXSMtHAy3vzFaLHC24wl2cT06Vet7GZWOsF8u/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBulZl7BsH-y1sMFNTvgSi-MUsFieAIMA3UPZS-o031LxeOBd104deFJKLhSNbLozlKBbjUPrX069bZpgqJfHZfzB2T3p579Om_nDHPssyXSMtHAy3vzFaLHC24wl2cT06Vet7GZWOsF8u/s320/2.jpg" /></a><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">akan terdistribusi normal dengan</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rata-rata µ</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Variansi</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghl36kpNvH_4HXadpl7R5hArEkir4RHYRYV7Al1Qdd9xu3vMv-8GUMoLBt9bCeHFUOzckFURI5_LBf3GIXyNt8xauRdTTjTBKAL_-mR3pZfwolQ8tFM4NCYfEcqKFjxROGwvh4etOxnurQ/s1600/3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghl36kpNvH_4HXadpl7R5hArEkir4RHYRYV7Al1Qdd9xu3vMv-8GUMoLBt9bCeHFUOzckFURI5_LBf3GIXyNt8xauRdTTjTBKAL_-mR3pZfwolQ8tFM4NCYfEcqKFjxROGwvh4etOxnurQ/s320/3.jpg" /></a><br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghl36kpNvH_4HXadpl7R5hArEkir4RHYRYV7Al1Qdd9xu3vMv-8GUMoLBt9bCeHFUOzckFURI5_LBf3GIXyNt8xauRdTTjTBKAL_-mR3pZfwolQ8tFM4NCYfEcqKFjxROGwvh4etOxnurQ/s1600/3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rata-rata sample </span> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT-5sZcNl9O27bj5pvExsIxMg9x12jQ2j4WqbJnhn0LC72i4NUbVGxM7WL4QwKyE5VoTYOEwXK0V3qeh5xs8_CXyHLMOl19ZGLDfGuLNVmBuML5tzuekOAjpjQZZSGq9E_PVC9OU3vVUMd/s1600/4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT-5sZcNl9O27bj5pvExsIxMg9x12jQ2j4WqbJnhn0LC72i4NUbVGxM7WL4QwKyE5VoTYOEwXK0V3qeh5xs8_CXyHLMOl19ZGLDfGuLNVmBuML5tzuekOAjpjQZZSGq9E_PVC9OU3vVUMd/s320/4.jpg" /></a><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> dapat distandarisasi dengan </span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrGM6gTVZWverP1w3WnD9oNtAptyNLQUXtIxo_meJskkiYzBOIbkISmlW17UlOHaIdMHw9I1yBAnlhC-RdFN-FFJJ2Vf3CBKd5O5sZNC8rOR6zvcX1vlJZZeBmwvLQ6l0gD8GOVAl5E5SY/s1600/5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrGM6gTVZWverP1w3WnD9oNtAptyNLQUXtIxo_meJskkiYzBOIbkISmlW17UlOHaIdMHw9I1yBAnlhC-RdFN-FFJJ2Vf3CBKd5O5sZNC8rOR6zvcX1vlJZZeBmwvLQ6l0gD8GOVAl5E5SY/s320/5.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Z mempunyai distribusi normal standar<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jika koefisien kepercayaan adalah</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiO45YfS5Nyy4sjMcS7O-LqvozUuCWYwk59KUDyndrWRLOnwU3YrJrKQ9geYNIzzId2RzJXfGyrHABIpXprqSU1sG8SsBljj8WoYFfOwKizCyBUFiSVxKX0vwgHs_1w0WkHJyynCURNZ41a/s1600/6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiO45YfS5Nyy4sjMcS7O-LqvozUuCWYwk59KUDyndrWRLOnwU3YrJrKQ9geYNIzzId2RzJXfGyrHABIpXprqSU1sG8SsBljj8WoYFfOwKizCyBUFiSVxKX0vwgHs_1w0WkHJyynCURNZ41a/s320/6.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0ogz6dhvzJfqa6RlfAmzDmZoLLsM6RHt8zqdn-j2ucOIR21i_S9gyEfDZkAv15CDpeKwTmyfTssBuwbdrGAQT2kaIU37iQEE3o7HJ2ETqqHA9d3noRRgGcxXLjoX9fU7Fut7dwiAMBgOX/s1600/7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0ogz6dhvzJfqa6RlfAmzDmZoLLsM6RHt8zqdn-j2ucOIR21i_S9gyEfDZkAv15CDpeKwTmyfTssBuwbdrGAQT2kaIU37iQEE3o7HJ2ETqqHA9d3noRRgGcxXLjoX9fU7Fut7dwiAMBgOX/s320/7.jpg" /></a></div><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">maka</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"></span><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sehingga rentang kepercayaan dg koefisien kepercayaan 100(1-</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt;">a</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">)% diberikan oleh</span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7ea6RDTV4e_HCIlVSRvbCeLfvNyZ6CEp2tqbqAineWoYnz2F8LxoKuJhfCT0FfQ5FPj3C2y_zC64LZnydQyienmh56HOKtm-ibg07LZAV5kr16j30h7wpjjg1z44k5wb3WjGxILUPk9aW/s1600/8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7ea6RDTV4e_HCIlVSRvbCeLfvNyZ6CEp2tqbqAineWoYnz2F8LxoKuJhfCT0FfQ5FPj3C2y_zC64LZnydQyienmh56HOKtm-ibg07LZAV5kr16j30h7wpjjg1z44k5wb3WjGxILUPk9aW/s320/8.jpg" /></a></div><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">adalah 100</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">/2% batas atas dari distribusi normal standar<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">lebih lengkapnya bisa di download<a href="http://www.ziddu.com/download/11100828/IntervalKepercayaan.pdf.html"> disini,,</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-30740041191166041842010-08-06T21:21:00.000+07:002010-08-06T21:21:03.518+07:00Distribusi Variable Acak Kontinu-Weibbul-Lognormal<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 36.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Book Antiqua";">Distribusi Weibull</span><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Book Antiqua";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Book Antiqua";">sering digunakan untuk memodelkan waktu kegagalan dari banyak sistem fisik. Parameter dalam distribusi memungkinkan fleksibilitas untuk memodelkan sistem dengan jumlah kegagalan bertambah terhadap waktu, berkurang terhadap waktu, atau tetap konstan terhadap waktu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7IotkYjqY0TIf-xHeQtf-kI1DE3YFqjQ-prLpxRcppkblKcmfyEK_8h33kUHqj21t38Cp0tR-UZirK-BPwXOpYxaYn_hI6H2kKGpRE6XDlD7izbSoABOC5gWIqKbcrpqN5wOjxqX8iv68/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7IotkYjqY0TIf-xHeQtf-kI1DE3YFqjQ-prLpxRcppkblKcmfyEK_8h33kUHqj21t38Cp0tR-UZirK-BPwXOpYxaYn_hI6H2kKGpRE6XDlD7izbSoABOC5gWIqKbcrpqN5wOjxqX8iv68/s320/1.jpg" /></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75"
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o:title=""/> </v:shape><![endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>untuk<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnEqNH2bWUc5p23mbIcoabZuI2B4PgX3-wGCW42Y1RU9U7Hx7sZhNONu6yvP_7jgIV8EywndsnWgyTlIn_-91F06Q4ZNtN6-o-gvYOCN4I4BCNuWPNyTQxHQ9wtdXnk-0iEVn25ICWQqDZ/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnEqNH2bWUc5p23mbIcoabZuI2B4PgX3-wGCW42Y1RU9U7Hx7sZhNONu6yvP_7jgIV8EywndsnWgyTlIn_-91F06Q4ZNtN6-o-gvYOCN4I4BCNuWPNyTQxHQ9wtdXnk-0iEVn25ICWQqDZ/s320/2.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: auto;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div class="" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">dengan parameter skala</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvpzEx717b3PmECBK93YNM2QC0B9jRjvkML1iVBjmi3QhhF9n5hhfeV-zlINB-RrVvahlEbZpFN5qEe6bi-T943BN2MXa8_dw4clxRpcLRSa5KNlQ4Llmw6XQ9-i8x4x95OAt80vcahcla/s1600/3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvpzEx717b3PmECBK93YNM2QC0B9jRjvkML1iVBjmi3QhhF9n5hhfeV-zlINB-RrVvahlEbZpFN5qEe6bi-T943BN2MXa8_dw4clxRpcLRSa5KNlQ4Llmw6XQ9-i8x4x95OAt80vcahcla/s320/3.jpg" /></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">dan parameter bentuk</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2etJEWholxO5AoFw_LbTsf3SnS4fWv0HRMXppy3YrTQ6KzjPCG_jqtvoiKiTBDGkMn0TnQY9BufeH6XrFOymtY2clTLhbpAkQRXecLMy7_i0WHeX5OhvDhr3YnVufvgW2mJ_SIOK_7iuI/s1600/4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2etJEWholxO5AoFw_LbTsf3SnS4fWv0HRMXppy3YrTQ6KzjPCG_jqtvoiKiTBDGkMn0TnQY9BufeH6XrFOymtY2clTLhbpAkQRXecLMy7_i0WHeX5OhvDhr3YnVufvgW2mJ_SIOK_7iuI/s320/4.jpg" /></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span></div>CDF-nya adalah<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh58hSI3qfCkxCA_Kx6Xabp17wKwI7I1ywDhn0d_KaU7aFaEF0T3meeI0FJm5YiUy_tbo_7ZaF5NXKr0kWdoywMCwgZzIY086ZhI9Jei7uQbqOfS03mrYkgbEblcLKGyZGEvCFFAjDlLq2a/s1600/5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="66" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh58hSI3qfCkxCA_Kx6Xabp17wKwI7I1ywDhn0d_KaU7aFaEF0T3meeI0FJm5YiUy_tbo_7ZaF5NXKr0kWdoywMCwgZzIY086ZhI9Jei7uQbqOfS03mrYkgbEblcLKGyZGEvCFFAjDlLq2a/s200/5.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Untuk lebih lengkapnya bisa di download <a href="http://www.ziddu.com/downloadlink/11100824/DistribusiVariableAcakKontinu-Weibbul-Lognormal.pdf">disini</a></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-30164896791744394152010-08-06T20:56:00.000+07:002010-08-06T20:56:23.723+07:00distribusi variable acak kontinu<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;"><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: red; font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri;">VARIABLE ACAK NORMAL STANDAR<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri;">Sebuah variable acak normal dengan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600"
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</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri;">disebut sebagai variable acak normal standar dan dilambangkan sebagai Z.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri;">Fungsi distribusi kumulatif (CDF) dari sebuah variable acak normal standar dilambangkan sebagai:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVPn3quqlZlHgO95pBEBlS0rgTKq4UY_V9A3-ATidEqNTBb_HsOlh2Ne95IpyJ1FR3cc7m-S8m5dWWsTbJZHcqkpxpLfb9NKZyCVckB6SoqIx4eCfgVtGEeXAy6wDnoLWT0OVTyu0VlNTW/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVPn3quqlZlHgO95pBEBlS0rgTKq4UY_V9A3-ATidEqNTBb_HsOlh2Ne95IpyJ1FR3cc7m-S8m5dWWsTbJZHcqkpxpLfb9NKZyCVckB6SoqIx4eCfgVtGEeXAy6wDnoLWT0OVTyu0VlNTW/s320/2.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_3"
o:spid="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:179.25pt;height:36.75pt;
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o:title="" gain="109227f"/> </v:shape><![endif]--></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="Default"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">CONTOH :<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div><div class="Default"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Misalkan pengukuran arus pada sepotong kabel diasumsikan mengikuti distribusi normal dengan rata-rata 10 mA dan variansi 4 mA. Berapakah probabilitas bahwa sebuah pengukuran akan melampaui 13 mA. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="Default"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Pernyataan probabilitasnya adalah</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuiirrbsZj_JUQk6u0pQEluhQlxAr4AeXIqs9QolCvJJ1jLV76WU99NnWpMz-z_Wboz9VeSc__AIDFs5DaKjCmpDYxPuJa-4cysHafLXVDFUw85odjnbBht_wcyUX7rKAwsbuTwzS6p6xl/s1600/3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; display: inline !important; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuiirrbsZj_JUQk6u0pQEluhQlxAr4AeXIqs9QolCvJJ1jLV76WU99NnWpMz-z_Wboz9VeSc__AIDFs5DaKjCmpDYxPuJa-4cysHafLXVDFUw85odjnbBht_wcyUX7rKAwsbuTwzS6p6xl/s320/3.jpg" /></a></div><div class="Default"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div></span><br />
<div class="Default"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Variable normal standarnya adalah</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8kR-yVsXZieur2V3KQrcW0DeEONIsa7OVyQ6R0Ux-kWvh1WSotmNicnEJwXIp9Wp2dIXLu2gu9kxBOypqDQTxc09bUGJSN-_gFWT_-YsO0TJAS0fQzJEOcOkXrRhTewdO208d1jUzQ6Ge/s1600/4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8kR-yVsXZieur2V3KQrcW0DeEONIsa7OVyQ6R0Ux-kWvh1WSotmNicnEJwXIp9Wp2dIXLu2gu9kxBOypqDQTxc09bUGJSN-_gFWT_-YsO0TJAS0fQzJEOcOkXrRhTewdO208d1jUzQ6Ge/s320/4.jpg" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuv91F1GSyY_itGlT6xfxs1J_TjxdzpyFBITnCd4dhMj9nTv0wrfxzfSAYxLwKtQejXmjEYRSBeoYCtZ-AZmJ-y3WgUK5mxYzm6FN9CF4kxPYsZrEGejQMWD8TcFoY968-q_5aaXiGP5Ba/s1600/5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="15" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuv91F1GSyY_itGlT6xfxs1J_TjxdzpyFBITnCd4dhMj9nTv0wrfxzfSAYxLwKtQejXmjEYRSBeoYCtZ-AZmJ-y3WgUK5mxYzm6FN9CF4kxPYsZrEGejQMWD8TcFoY968-q_5aaXiGP5Ba/s400/5.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="Default"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_6" o:spid="_x0000_i1028"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:404.25pt;height:15.75pt;visibility:visible'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ARIESKA\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.emz"
o:title=""/> </v:shape><![endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri;">Atau dengan kata lain<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNXc6G2O0IXryjc-Vz7LC3nSqwDfpb5wV25D5GEB2TwtYvn-IJmVMwGkDH-ADpZpbbm1RWU3XEMv-aPf8kpGCZMrZRdsNPZHDIR7d6cVjOve8BzEReOIvI0BZ5bwRwAsVUkjGUA5azZgLk/s640/6.jpg" width="640" /></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_7"
o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:427.5pt;height:161.25pt;
visibility:visible'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\ARIESKA\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.emz"
o:title="" gain="109227f" blacklevel="-6554f"/> </v:shape><![endif]--></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Selengkapnya bias download <a href="http://www.ziddu.com/downloadlink/11100827/distribusivariableacakkontinu.pdf">disini</a><o:p></o:p></span></div></span>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-58473804577591608092010-04-11T16:25:00.000+07:002010-04-11T16:25:48.037+07:00<span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;">materi MR2 ..</span>.<br />
<div style="color: magenta;"><span style="font-size: small;">download disini TEMAN^^</span></div><br />
<a href="http://www.ziddu.com/download/9399308/Presentation1.pdf.html">pdf. file</a>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-83719877287930644622010-04-05T20:20:00.001+07:002010-04-05T20:20:46.344+07:00MANAJEMEN PROYEK<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>MANAJEMEN PROYEK </b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>PENDAHULUAN</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">PROYEK KONSTRUKSI MERUPAKAN SUATU RANGKAIAN KEGIATAN YANG HANYA SATU KALI DILAKSANAKAN DAN UMUMNYA BERJANGKA WAKTU PENDEK. DALAM RANGKAIAN KEGIATAN TERDAPAT PROSES YANG MENGOLAH SUMBERDAYA PROYEK MENJADI SUATU HASIL YG BERUPA FISIK ATAU BANGUNAN.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>INDUSTRI BARANG, INDUSTRI JASA &INDUSTRI JASA KONSTRUKSI</b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0VptfpkbIG0M-nXe4HidjVrMd1yOZgVxfb-VQHISY_4sC9dXlJy3BTM8A3jZi8cWzeOOMEZgywsxTA_MbP5tGTt2erhkPRPQRBv6x37bvK0mh8KgRWzDTJlHRvuqz85Kv0SCYD_-IgUc5/s1600/Picture1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="295" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0VptfpkbIG0M-nXe4HidjVrMd1yOZgVxfb-VQHISY_4sC9dXlJy3BTM8A3jZi8cWzeOOMEZgywsxTA_MbP5tGTt2erhkPRPQRBv6x37bvK0mh8KgRWzDTJlHRvuqz85Kv0SCYD_-IgUc5/s400/Picture1.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>RINCIAN KEGIATAN INSDUSTRI BARANG</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>PRODUK BERSIFAT FISIK, DPT DILIHAT SEBELUM DIBELI</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>MENGOLAH BARANG MENTAH/BAKU MJD BARANG JADI</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>DIPRODUKSI DL BR DIJUAL</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>INVESTASI BESAR</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>PRODUK DAPAT DISIMPAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>STANDART PRODUK RELATIF TETAP (SAMA)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>LOKASI PRODUKSI TETAP/ STATIS</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>DIPRODUKSI DULU BARU DIKOMSUMSI</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>RINCIAN KEGIATAN INSDUSTRI JASA</b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>PRODUK BERSIFAT TDK BERBENTUK FISIK</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>TDK MENGOLAH BARANG MENTAH/BAKU </div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>DIJUAL / DITAWARKAN DULU BARU DI PRODUKSI</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>RELATIF TIDAK MEMERLUKAN INVESTASI YG BESAR</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>STANDART PRODUK TDK TETAP (SAMA)</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>LOKASI PRODUKSI TDK TETAP/ DINAMIS</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -18pt;">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>DIPRODUKSI BERSAMAAN DGN DIKOMSUMSI</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>RINCIAN KEGIATAN INSDUSTRI JASA KONSTRUKSI</b></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">PRODUK BERBENTUK FISIK (BANGUNAN) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> INDUSTRI BARANG</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">MENGOLAH BAHAN BAKU <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> INDUSTRI BARANG</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">DITAWARKAN LEBIH DULU, BARU DIPRODUKSI <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> INDUSTRI JASA</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">PRODUKSI BERSAMAAN DGN KOMSUMSI, TETAPI TERKADANG TDK BERSAMAAN (TURN KEY PROJECT) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>INDUSTRI BARANG/JASA</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">PRODUK DAPAT DISIMPAN <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span>INDUSTRI BARANG</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">LOKASI TIDAK TETAP <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> INDUSTRI JASA</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">STANDART PRODUK TDK TETAP <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> INDUSTRI JASA</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal"><b>KARAKTERISTIK/ SIFAT-SIFAT UMUM PROYEK KONSRTUKSI (SOEHENDRAJATI) </b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>PROYEK ADALAH USAHA YG KOMPLEK, BIASANYA TDK MERUPAKAN KEGIATAN YG BERULANG DLM PENGERTIAN LUAS.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>MENGHASILKAN PRODUK YG SPESIFIK</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>MEMPUNYAI SIKLUS HIDUP, ADA TITIK AWAL DAN AKHIR, PHASE-PHASE PROYEK MENCAKUP : KONSEPSI DAN DEFINISI, DESAIN DAN PENGEMBANGAN, PENERAPAN, PENYELESAIAN DAN OPERASIONAL.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>CIRI-CIRI PROYEK BERUBAH-UBAH SELAMA MELALUI PHASE SIKLUS HIDUPNYA.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>KETIDAK PASTIAN BIAYA DAN WAKTU TERHADAP MAKIN DEWASANYA PHASE PROYEK.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>KARAKTERISTIK/ SIFAT-SIFAT PROYEK KONSTRUKSI (ERVIANTO)</b></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">PROYEK BERSIFAT UNIK</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">TDK PERNAH TERJADI RANGKAIAN KEGIATAN YG SAMA PERSIS (TDK ADA PROYEK IDENTIK TAPI PROYEK SEJENIS), PROYEK BERSIFAT SEMENTARA DAN SELALU MELIBATKAN GRUP PEKERJA YG BEREDA-BEDA.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">2. MEMBUTUHKAN SUMBER DAYA (RESOURCES)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">MEMBUTUHKAN 5 M (MAN, MONEY, MECHINE, MATERIAL & METHODE). PENGORGANISASIAN SUMBERDAYA DILAKUKAN SEORANG MANAJER PROYEK. MENGORGANISASIKAN PEKERJA LEBIH SULIT DIBANDING YG LAINYA, SHG DIBUTUHKAN PENGETAHUAN TTG TEORI KEPEMIMPINAN YG HARUS DIPELAJARI. SEMENTARA PENGETAHUAN YANG DIPELAJARI BERSIFAT TEKNIS, MISAL STRUKTUR BETON, MR DLL.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">3. MEMBUTUHKAN ORGANISASI</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">SETIAP ORGANISASI MEMPUNYAI KERAGAMAN TUJUAN DIMANA DIDALAMNYA TERLIBAT BANYAK INDIVIDU DGN RAGAM KEAHLIAN, KETERTARIKAN, KEPRIBADIAN JUGA KETIDAKPASTIAN, SHG SBG LANGKAH AWAL ADALAH MENYATUKAN VISI MENJADI SATU TUJUAN YG DITETAPKAN ORGANISASI.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>KARAKTERISTRIK PROYEK KONSTRUKSI<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhypus1qwKmoouQV0dIcnL4ni7tN6-wXf8X2FXW4KVGUr7U24B50EWNGOMW2LLh7E2Ej2Hs0FtGFF4mK7DwVE2XmJY3TkUavFVHmEaI4uLspdNF3mqrsaf8Uj0fhMuZL7DiTulscwILEFdJ/s1600/Picture42.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="241" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhypus1qwKmoouQV0dIcnL4ni7tN6-wXf8X2FXW4KVGUr7U24B50EWNGOMW2LLh7E2Ej2Hs0FtGFF4mK7DwVE2XmJY3TkUavFVHmEaI4uLspdNF3mqrsaf8Uj0fhMuZL7DiTulscwILEFdJ/s400/Picture42.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><i>TRIPLE CONTRAINT </i>P</b> <b>ROYEK KONSTRUKSI<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4NrQlMaDW-KM4XaJJKz5WGnd4HGmJxWWfkY3cyDgA3Ex-Apo1c94yjfVkKaJHvXph-Yuh8w4rBrNwt3L-mOo3uAUzmA2HwTLESmURthlC7OO8T2bvBk0NpdWJZ1C2ypI9Bx7gHLzmjzci/s1600/Picture5.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="232" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4NrQlMaDW-KM4XaJJKz5WGnd4HGmJxWWfkY3cyDgA3Ex-Apo1c94yjfVkKaJHvXph-Yuh8w4rBrNwt3L-mOo3uAUzmA2HwTLESmURthlC7OO8T2bvBk0NpdWJZ1C2ypI9Bx7gHLzmjzci/s400/Picture5.png" width="400" /></a></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><b>MANAGEMEN PROYEK</b></div><div class="MsoNormal">MANAGEMEN PROYEK ADALAH SEMUA PERENCANAAN, PELAKSANAAN, PENGENDALIAN DAN KOORDINASI SUATU PROYEK DARI AWAL (GAGASAN) HINGGA BERAKHIRNYA PROYEK UNTUK MENJAMIN PELAKSANAAN PROYEK SECARA TEPAT WAKTU, TEPAT BIAYA DAN TEPAT MUTU.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>IMPLIKASI CIRI-CIRI PROYEK DALAM PRAKTEK YG HARUS DIPAHAMI :</b></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">PROYEK HARUS DIMANAJEMENI ATAS DASAR PER PHASE DARI SIKLUS HIDUPNYA DGN TANGGUNG JAWAB YG MAKSIMUM SERTA PERENCANAAN DAN PENGENDALIAN YANG TERINTEGRASI.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">ORENTASI PADA PROSES DAN PRODUK</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">ORGANISASI PROYEK HARUS TERKAIT TERUS-MENERUS DGN ORGANISASI U INDUKNYA.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KEPUTUSAN-KEPUTUSAN PD PHASE-PHASE SEBELUMNYA MEMPUNYAI DAMPAK YG LUAS DLM WAKTU DAN BIAYA PENYELESAIAN PROYEK.</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal"><b>KEBUTUHAN AKAN MANAJEMEN PROYEK</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN PROYEK BELUM MENJAMIN SEPENUHNYA TERLAKSANA PROYEK, PERLU DIDUKUNG PENGEMBANGAN TEKNOLOGI.</div><br />
<div></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN PROYEK LEBIH MENEKANKAN PERENCANAAN PENGENDALIAN DIBANDING DGN MANAJEMEN DARI DEPARTEMEN FUNGSIONAL, DITEKAKNKAN PULA KEPEMIMPINAN DAN KERJASAMA SERTA MENDASRKAN PD FAKTOR HASIL KARYA DAN USAHA PENCAPAINYA.</div><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN PROYEK MERUPAKAN SUATU SISTEM DR PEDOMAN-PEDOMAN POKOK YG SALING TERGANTUNG, BERHUBUNGAN DAN BERINTERAKSI.BERHASILNYA MP SANGAT TERGANTUNG DARI INTEGRASI DAN CARA PENDEKATAN YG DIGUNAKAN UT MELAKSANAKAN TUGAS-TUGAS DLM PROYEK.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-59852874955109029042010-04-05T18:19:00.000+07:002010-04-05T18:19:59.686+07:00MANAJEMEN KONSTRUKSI<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>MANAJEMEN KONSTRUKSI</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"><b>PENDAHULUAN</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 20.7pt;">BERBAGAI DALAM DAN LUAR NEGERI DIBACA, ADA 315 PENGERTIAN MANAJEMEN. TIGA RATUS LIMA BELAS PENGERTIAN MANAJEMEN TERSEBUT, DIANALISIS TITIK TEMU KESAMAAN SEKALIGUS PERBEDANNYA BERBASIS LATAR BELAKANG PENDIDIKAN PENULIS SENDIRI ADALAH BIDANG MANAJEMEN. SEHINGGA KETEMU SUDAH TERDAPAT TUJUH KELOMPOK ARTI MANAJEMEN.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>TUJUH ARTI MANAJEMEN</b></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN <a href="http://id.shvoong.com/tags/sebagai/">SEBAGAI</a> ALAT ATAU CARA. INI MEMPUNYAI ARTI PENGGUNAAN MANUSIA, UANG, BAHAN-BAHAN, PERLENGKAPAN DAN METODE <a href="http://id.shvoong.com/tags/secara/">SECARA</a> EFEKTIF DEMI <a href="http://id.shvoong.com/tags/mencapai/">MENCAPAI</a> <a href="http://id.shvoong.com/tags/tujuan/">TUJUAN</a>.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN SEBAGAI KEKUATAN. ARTINYA, SEBUAH KEKUATAN YANG MEMIMPIN, MEMBERI PANDUAN, DAN MENGARAHKAN SUATU ORGANISASI UNTUK MENCAPAI TUJUAN YANG TELAH DITETAPKAN.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN SEBAGAI SISTEM. SISTEM PERILAKU KERJASAMA MANUSIA YANG DIARAHKAN DALAM MENCAPAI TUJUAN LEWAT <a href="http://id.shvoong.com/tags/aktifitas/">AKTIFITAS</a>-AKTIFITAS RASIONAL BERKESINAMBUNGAN.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN HUGA SEBAGAI PROSES. PROSES PENCAPAIAN HASIL YANG DIINGINKAN VIA PENGGUNAAN SUMBER DAYA SECARA EFISIEN.</li>
</ol><ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN SEBAGAI FUNGSI. INI BERARTI, FUNGSI DARI DEWAN MANAJER ATAU SERING DISEBUT MANAJEMEN UNTUK MENETAPKAN KEBIJAKAN, KEBIJAKSANAAN-KEBIJAKSANAAN SERTA BERTANGGUNG JAWAB DALAM MEMBENTUK STRUKTUR ORGANISASI UNTUK MELAKSANAKAN KEBIJAKAN YANG DITETAPKANNYA.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN SEBAGAI TUGAS. TUGAS DARIPADA PERENCANAAN, PENGORGANISASIAN, PEMOTIVASIAN DAN PENGAWASAN MENCAPAI SATU ATAU LEBIH TUJUAN.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN SEBAGAI AKTIFITAS. SEBAGAI AKTIFITAS KATA MANAJEMEN MERUJUK PADA ARTI PENCAPAIAN TUJUAN YANG TELAH DITETAPKAN MELALUI USAHA-USAHA YANG DILAKUKAN ORANG LAIN.</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">MANAJEMEN MEMUNCULKAN DIRINYA SEBAGAI AKTIFITAS YANG DILAKUKAN SEKELOMPOK ORANG DALAM SUATU SISTEM RELATIONSHIP DENGAN PERTOLONGAN SUMBER DAYA BERSAMA SELURUH FASILITAS MENCAPAI TUJUAN YANG HENDAK DIPEROLEH SECARA EFEKTIF DAN EFISIEN. AAH PAK DJOKO APALAH ARTI SEBUAH NAMA.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">JADI MANAJEMEN SECARA LUAS BERARTI MENGELOLA. (IMAM MULYANA)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Prinsip manajemen</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">PRINSIP-PRINSIP DALAM MANAJEMEN BERSIFAT LENTUR DALAM ARTI BAHWA PERLU DIPERTIMBANGKAN SESUAI DENGAN KONDISI-KONDISI KHUSUS DAN SITUASI-SITUASI YANG BERUBAH. MENURUT <u><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fayol">HENRY FAYOL</a></u>, SEORANG PENCETUS TEORI MANAJEMEN YANG BERASAL DARI PERANCIS, PRINSIP-PRINSIP UMUM MANAJEMEN INI TERDIRI DARI:</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">PEMBAGIAN KERJA (DIVISION OF WORK)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">WEWENANG DAN TANGGUNG JAWAB (AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">DISIPLIN (<i>DISCIPLINE</i>)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">KESATUAN PERINTAH (<i>UNITY OF COMMAND</i>)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">KESATUAN PENGARAHAN (<i>UNITY OF DIRECTION</i>)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MENGUTAMAKAN KEPENTINGAN ORGANISASI DI ATAS KEPENTINGAN SENDIRI</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">PENGGAJIAN PEGAWAI</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">PEMUSATAN (<i>CENTRALIZATION</i>)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">HIRARKI (TINGKATAN)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">KETERTIBAN (<i>ORDER</i>)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">KEADILAN DAN KEJUJURAN</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">STABILITAS KONDISI KARYAWAN</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">PRAKARSA (<i>INISIATIVE</i>)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">SEMANGAT KESATUAN, SEMANGAT KORPS</li>
</ol></ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Manajer</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Manajer adalah seseorang yang bekerja melalui orang lain dengan mengoordinasikan kegiatan-kegiatan mereka guna mencapai sasaran <u><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisasi">organisasi</a></u>.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzwSSY44EN4txVPHQtUfnWk3w-MBmVGaikmCseMw8QyOdPOM5pUm-F7BXIbTrsXjPY_ey5Bq44yFs8rZMe_CqUaIe7kiZR8R0USO2G4LJdy8Znmw2KDXJE4HoRAWK1Cj2veCuiYXk_KMOp/s1600/Picture1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzwSSY44EN4txVPHQtUfnWk3w-MBmVGaikmCseMw8QyOdPOM5pUm-F7BXIbTrsXjPY_ey5Bq44yFs8rZMe_CqUaIe7kiZR8R0USO2G4LJdy8Znmw2KDXJE4HoRAWK1Cj2veCuiYXk_KMOp/s320/Picture1.jpg" width="251" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Piramida jumlah karyawan pada organisasi dengan struktur tradisional, berdasarkan tingkatannya.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Pada organisasi berstruktur tradisional, manajer sering dikelompokan menjadi manajer puncak, manajer tingkat menengah, dan manajer lini pertama (biasanya digambarkan dengan bentuk piramida, di mana jumlah karyawan lebih besar di bagian bawah daripada di puncak).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>TINGKATAN MANAJER</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Tingkatan manajer mulai dari bawah ke atas:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Manejemen lini pertama (<i>first-line management</i>)</b>, dikenal pula dengan istilah manajemen operasional, merupakan manajemen tingkatan paling rendah yang bertugas memimpin dan mengawasi karyawan non-manajerial yang terlibat dalam proses produksi. Mereka sering disebut penyelia (<i>supervisor</i>), manajer <i>shift</i>, manajer area, manajer kantor, manajer departemen, atau mandor (<i>foreman</i>).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Manajemen tingkat menengah (<i>middle management</i>)</b>, mencakup semua manajemen yang berada di antara manajer lini pertama dan manajemen puncak dan bertugas sebagai penghubung antara keduanya. Jabatan yang termasuk manajer menengah di antaranya kepala bagian, pemimpin proyek, manajer pabrik, atau manajer divisi.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Manajemen puncak (<i>top management</i>)</b>, dikenal pula dengan istilah <i>executive officer</i>. Bertugas merencanakan kegiatan dan strategi perusahaan secara umum dan mengarahkan jalannya perusahaan. Contoh <i>top manajemen</i> adalah CEO (<i>Chief Executive Officer</i>), CIO (<i>Chief Information Officer</i>), dan CFO (<i>Chief Financial Officer</i>).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>KETERAMPILAN MANAJER</b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNJLRQN56GBmhFH7CQS49mUi763anWq92uI_rI4b3QOeta5lbz-1_wrQEDKg0FcMXFRBoVYeiGVgsQMRI2URiN9WRUbROlg2LAx9YdlaqKINLVgeMQNePkbqr2cDbO234ezSIx2klZ1Hwm/s1600/Picture2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNJLRQN56GBmhFH7CQS49mUi763anWq92uI_rI4b3QOeta5lbz-1_wrQEDKg0FcMXFRBoVYeiGVgsQMRI2URiN9WRUbROlg2LAx9YdlaqKINLVgeMQNePkbqr2cDbO234ezSIx2klZ1Hwm/s320/Picture2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>MANAJEMEN KONSTRUKSI</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">MANAJEMEN KONSTRUKSI TERDIRI DARI DUA KATA YAITU :</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>MANAJEMEN (<i>MANAGEMENT</i>)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>KONSTRUKSI (<i>CONSTRUCTION</i>)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">Manajemen ialah suatu proses nyata yang terdiri dari perencanaan (<i>planning</i>), pengorganisasian (<i>organizing</i>), pelaksanaan (<i>actuating</i>), dan pengawasan (<i>controlling</i>), yang masing masing saling memanfaatkan dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan (science) maupun keahlian (<i>art</i>), dalam rangka untuk mencapai mencapai tujuan sasaran yang telah ditetapkan.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>KONSTRUKSI</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Pengertian konstruksi dalam masyarakat masih banyak kerancuan-kerancuan. Istilah konstruksi beton, konstruksi baja, konstruksi kayu misalnya, seringkali masih digunakan untuk maksud mengartikan struktur rangka beton, struktur baja, struktur kayu. Kerancuan ini kemungkinan timbul karena di masa lalu kita pernah menggunakan sebagai padanan kata <i>constructie</i> (bahasa Belanda, struktur) yang artinya berlainan dengan kata <i>construction</i> (bahasa Inggris, pembangunan).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>MANAJEMEN KONSTRUKSI</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Manajemen konstruksi yang selama ini digunakan oleh kalangan luas adalah padanan dari istilah bahasa Inggris <i>construction management</i> yang berarti pengelolaan pembangunan sesuatu bangunan.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifZYFb1E8YwFPK1YBudlP6mA9N0OwLApUgmYgs6SfMw9eBO21FutZtxFsAQxoWH-r1wg7krykv_yVVs_DwnpcVbGFYm4BZEQy8Q2C73OxGROwG7RYsu2yuhAeDo0RiPPqXVEv70D5x11IC/s1600/Picture4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifZYFb1E8YwFPK1YBudlP6mA9N0OwLApUgmYgs6SfMw9eBO21FutZtxFsAQxoWH-r1wg7krykv_yVVs_DwnpcVbGFYm4BZEQy8Q2C73OxGROwG7RYsu2yuhAeDo0RiPPqXVEv70D5x11IC/s400/Picture4.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com11tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-18906058200675748112010-03-15T10:47:00.000+07:002010-03-15T10:47:00.729+07:00PENGUKURAN JARAK LANGSUNG<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">PENGUKURAN JARAK LANGSUNG</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">1. PENGERTIAN JARAK</div><div class="MsoNormal">DALAM IUT, JARAK ANTARA DUA TITIK ADALAH JARAK DALAM BIDANG HORIZONTAL, YANG MERUPAKAN JARAK TERPENDEK ANTARA DUA TITIK TERSEBUT.</div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC08vbjqkdaQu3sGwRd5w7VN6wKM-hWts1POCtaPyIntJi8WMX175qNeGfErrJJjq2EcguNG2GgIm6n9lmTzmijU9lC75vEBdL8t7JyI3MJAb_8-I7KFs_hS6GImzjVk28GNZNzI3KxhZv/s1600-h/Picture23.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="282" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC08vbjqkdaQu3sGwRd5w7VN6wKM-hWts1POCtaPyIntJi8WMX175qNeGfErrJJjq2EcguNG2GgIm6n9lmTzmijU9lC75vEBdL8t7JyI3MJAb_8-I7KFs_hS6GImzjVk28GNZNzI3KxhZv/s400/Picture23.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center;">Gambar 1. Bagan Pengukuran Jarak</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.3pt;">2. PERALATAN YANG DIGUNAKAN </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">PERALATAN YANG DIGUNAKAN DALAM PENGUKURAN LANGSUNG ANTARA LAIN:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>PITA UKUR <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> BAJA, FIBERGLASS, PLASTIK, KAIN ATAU CAMPURAN </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>PEGAS UKUR YANG TERBUAT <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> PLAT/PITA BAJA DAN DILENGKAPI DENGAN PEGAS PENGUKUR KETEGANGAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>RANTAI UKUR YANG TERBUAT DARI KAWAT BAJA</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>KAYU UKUR</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgopGGH-kaGY1hd_WnOAthVJGGy9HqBNFb-vXFedv3GnTc1mCimkmpM-FV8VsLVAwj8mq_gZxNQpFUhFJY5_cI_Vp7M4tBgpVKAq-TRzgLvl8lEfTGfc3sPWIk2EIvkIQD2qmHAxgi7k0bl/s1600-h/Picture3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgopGGH-kaGY1hd_WnOAthVJGGy9HqBNFb-vXFedv3GnTc1mCimkmpM-FV8VsLVAwj8mq_gZxNQpFUhFJY5_cI_Vp7M4tBgpVKAq-TRzgLvl8lEfTGfc3sPWIk2EIvkIQD2qmHAxgi7k0bl/s400/Picture3.jpg" width="347" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYKRHKMNJ4z99WcdYE7EZvAwbizZ8Hra6MICwAlrPEGrYroOvPSogpKZab0pmbMCy7a_og84B8NwDUFmN-5lQ2PiQuc7byL4FumRi_mBgUAs_CkNCUPhZR-filTtFR_vG2wj59i_b0HZoc/s1600-h/Picture4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYKRHKMNJ4z99WcdYE7EZvAwbizZ8Hra6MICwAlrPEGrYroOvPSogpKZab0pmbMCy7a_og84B8NwDUFmN-5lQ2PiQuc7byL4FumRi_mBgUAs_CkNCUPhZR-filTtFR_vG2wj59i_b0HZoc/s400/Picture4.jpg" width="363" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal">PANJANG ANTARA 20 m – 50 m ADA JUGA YANG 100 m (KECUALI KAYU 3 – 5 m)</div><div class="MsoNormal">LEBAR ANTARA 1 – 2cm DAN TEBAL 0,1 – 0,2mm</div><div class="MsoNormal">SATUAN : UMUMNYA DUA MACAM YAITU : </div><div class="MsoNormal">METER (0,5 cm – 1 mm) DAN INCHI (0,125 inchi – 0,1 inchi)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>ALAT-LAT BANTU :</div><div class="MsoNormal">ALAT-LAT BANTU :</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">YALON ATAU ANJIR</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">PEN UKUR YANG TERBUAT DARI KAWAT BAJA</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">BENANG DAN UNTING-UNTING</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KLINOMETER ATAU HELLING METER ATAU ABNEY LEVEL</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">JEPITAN PENARIK</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">PEGAS PENGUKUR KETEGANGAN</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">CERMIN ATAU PRISMA PENYIKU</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>3. PELURUSAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">PELURUSAN DILAKUKAN APABILA PEGUKURAN TIDAK DAPAT DILAKUKAN DENGAN SEKALI MEMBENTANGKAN PITA UKUR KARENA JARAK YANG DIUKUR MELEBIHI PANJANG PITA UKUR DAN ATAU PERMUKAAN TANAH TIDAK MENDATAR, SHG JARAK TSB PERLU DIPENGGAL AGAR SETIAP PENGGALAN DPT DILAKUKAN PENGUKURAN JARAK DENGAN SEKALI MEMBENTANGKAN PITA UKUR DAN PITA UKUR DAPAT DITARIK HINGGA MENDATAR.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>4. PELAKSANAAN PENGUKURAN</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>MINIMAL DILAKUKAN DUA ORANG</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>DENGAN MENGGUNAKAN PITA UKUR DAN PEN UKUR, MAKA ANGKA PANJANG PITA UKUR DIBACA ORANG KEDUA, DATA DICATAT</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>UNTUK MEDAN MIRING, TERLEBIH DULU DILAKUKAN PELURUSAN DAN PEMBUATAN PENGGAL-PENGGAL.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>UNTUK MENDAPATKAN HASIL YANG LEBIH BAIK, MAKA DILAKUKAN PENGUKURAN PERGI (A – B) DAN PENGUKURAN PULANG ( B – A), YANG BIASANYA HASIL TIDAK SAMA DAN HASILNYA DIRATA-RATA.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>RASIO KETELITIAN PENGUKURAN JARAK ADALAH SELISIH PERGI DAN PULANG DIBAGI DENGAN JARAK RATA-RATA. KETELITIAN BERKISAR 1:500 SMPAI 1:300.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>5. CARA PENCATATAN DATA UKURAN JARAK LANGSUNG</div><div class="MsoNormal">AGAR DATA UKURAN-UKURAN JARAK YANG BANYAK TIDAK MEMBINGUNGKAN DAN MENJADI LEBIH SISTEMATIK DAN MUDAH DIPAHAMI ORANG LAIN, MAKA DATA TSB DICATA DALAM FORMULIR UKUR ATAU BUKU UKUR DAN DISERTAKAN SKET PENGUKURAN, ARAH PENGUKURAN DAN CARA PENULISAN DATA DENGAN ATURAN YANG BAKU ATAU SERAGAM.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Contoh</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZGq3rwHb2vLf7gEPd70hkLmP4_B6xlLUe9qacJqORTZFUwOo3vMHbWjPQ2Z1aGcR9fq4oVzFFU4OWZcgdwcUlSwFDvpXnhHTUn76fFxAS2SbyxDbOUJQvVF95uVM1OfRgChOCydZ_bOy6/s1600-h/Picture5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZGq3rwHb2vLf7gEPd70hkLmP4_B6xlLUe9qacJqORTZFUwOo3vMHbWjPQ2Z1aGcR9fq4oVzFFU4OWZcgdwcUlSwFDvpXnhHTUn76fFxAS2SbyxDbOUJQvVF95uVM1OfRgChOCydZ_bOy6/s320/Picture5.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwvS_WgHMN61csZOujPEXhTSUl5AklHxKucMHmTDoEbrA9pie_v4rPQRVJuC282DiDD97PcJReHIW21NjChAr1UzLwh4-HYu8nDWydK-6NTA3q8R6xfOwzOXhZ6rLDITjf5M6rhwEKSKGm/s1600-h/Picture6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwvS_WgHMN61csZOujPEXhTSUl5AklHxKucMHmTDoEbrA9pie_v4rPQRVJuC282DiDD97PcJReHIW21NjChAr1UzLwh4-HYu8nDWydK-6NTA3q8R6xfOwzOXhZ6rLDITjf5M6rhwEKSKGm/s320/Picture6.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>6. PENGUKURAN JARAK LANGSUNG DLM RINTANGAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>7. MEMBUAT ARAH OBYEK TEGAK LURUS SEBUAH GARIS</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt;">APABILA DILAPANGAN AKAN DIBUAT SEBUAH GARIS MELALUI SUATU OBYEK ATAU GARIS TSB TEGAK LURUS GARIS LAIN DGN PERALATAN SEDERHANA, DAPAT DIKERJAKAN DGN BBRP CARA :</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>PERBANDINGAN SISI SEGITIGA SIKU-SIKU</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>MENGGUNAKAN TITIK TENGAH TALI BUSUR</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>BANTUAN CERMIN PENYIKU ATAU PRISMA</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>8. SUMBER-SUMBER KESALAHAN DALAM PENGUKURAN JARAK LANGSUNG</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt;">KESALAHAN DALAM PENGUKURAN JARAK LANGSUNG:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>PITA UKUR TIDAK BETUL-BETUL MENDATAR</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>UNTING-UNTING TIDAK VERTIKAL BETUL KRN FAKTOR ANGIN, GANGGUAN YANG LAIN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>PELURUSAN YG KURANG SEMPURNA</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>PANJANG PITA UKUR TIDAK STANDART</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>KESALAHAN DLM MENGHITUNG JUMLAH BENTANGAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>KESALAHAN MEMBACA PITA UKUR DAN PENCATATANYA</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-61068119179480124012010-03-14T06:50:00.000+07:002010-03-14T06:50:00.120+07:00KESALAHAN-KESALAHAN DALAM PENGUKURAN<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">KESALAHAN-KESALAHAN DALAM PENGUKURAN</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal">PENGUKURAN ADALAH PENGAMATAN TERHADAP SUATU BESARAN YANG DILAKUKAN DENGAN MENGGUNAKAN PERALATAN DALAM SUATU LOKASI DENGAN BEBERAPA KETERBATASAN YANG TERTENTU. PENGUKURAN <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> KESALAHAN</div><div class="MsoNormal">KESALAHAN DAPAT DIGOLONGKAN :</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">KESALAHAN KASAR (<i>MISTAKE/ BLUNDERS</i>)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KESLAHAN SISTEMATIK (<i>SYSTEMATIC ERROR</i>)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KESLAHAN RANDOM / TAK TERDUGA (<i>OCCIDENTAL ERROR</i>)</li>
</ol></ol><div class="MsoNormal"><b>SUMBER KESALAHAN </b></div><div class="MsoNormal">SUMBER KESALAHAN :</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">SURVEYOR</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">ALAT UKUR</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">ALAM</li>
</ol></ol><div class="MsoNormal"><b>1. KESALAHAN KASAR</b></div><div class="MsoNormal">KESALAHAN INI TERJADI KARENA :</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">KURANG HATI-HATI/ GEGABAH</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KURANG PENGALAMAN / KURANG PERHATIAN</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KESALAHAN INI TIDAK BOLEH TERJADI, APABILA DIKETAHUI ADA KESALAHAN MAKA DIANJURKAN UNTUK MENGULANG KESELURUHAN ATAU SEBAGIAN.</li>
</ol></ol><div class="MsoNormal">CONTOH :</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>SALAH BACA</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>SALAH MENCATAT</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>SALAH DENGAR</div><div class="MsoNormal">UNTUK MENGHINDARI KESALAHAN INI :</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>PENGUKURAN LEBIH DARI SATU KALI</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>PENGUKURAN DENGAN MODEL DAN TEKNIK TERTENTU</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">- PENGUKURAN DILAKUKAN DENGAN 2 ORANG ATAU LEBIH SESUAI TUGASNYA..</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuxDjjzS6Pv4nNekTyXGUbwWfFsOXi1eepOv4Mo8dFduK6QBdsOKOf90Hq11JU92FsJPMdmIPo2eYb-e0EphOY-qi6ruRFc2yA6UvG6XNAcHX8XoK6S5za5bzKhGSKfjHCqov_YbsTryUe/s1600-h/%E2%82%ACh0_pP@008.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuxDjjzS6Pv4nNekTyXGUbwWfFsOXi1eepOv4Mo8dFduK6QBdsOKOf90Hq11JU92FsJPMdmIPo2eYb-e0EphOY-qi6ruRFc2yA6UvG6XNAcHX8XoK6S5za5bzKhGSKfjHCqov_YbsTryUe/s320/%E2%82%ACh0_pP@008.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><o:p> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>2. KESALAHAN SISTEMATIK </b></div><div class="MsoNormal">KESALAHAN SISTEMATIK </div><div class="MsoNormal">UMUMNYA KESALAHAN SISTEMATIK DISEBABKAN OLEH ALAT-ALAT UKUR SENDIRI (PANJANG PITA, PEMBAGIAN SKALA, PEMBAGIAN LINGKARAN THEODOLIT) ATAU CARA PENGUKURAN YANG TIDAK BENAR.</div><div class="MsoNormal">CARA MENGHINDARI KESALAHAN :</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>ALAT PERLU DIKALIBRASI SBLM DIGUNAKAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>DGN CARA-CARA PENGUKURAN TERTENTU ( PENGAMATAN BIASA DAN LUAR BIASA DAN HASILNYA DIRATA-RATA)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>KOREKSI PADA PENGOLAHAN DATA.</div><div class="MsoNormal">PADA PENGUKURAN JARAK LANGSUNG KESALAHAN SISTEMATIK YANG TERJADI :</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>PANJANG PITA UKUR YANG TDK STANDAR</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>PELURUSAN YANG TDK SEMPURNA</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>PITA UKUR YANG TDK SEMPURNA</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>KEMIRINGAN MEDAN LAPANGAN (SLOPE)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>KELENTURAN PITA UKUR</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>VARIASI TEMPERATUR UDARA </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">2.1 KOREKSI STANDAR PITA UKUR </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhG0dz_ZJkcxQQBmyzRt_kVa0J0v4xN1-Vpb_mKK241oRBEjSagLV34mTc8-qlDtoMIyzq_SLrNt0NmHLBgxM7d-HAXMPuyG3zpHOQLLo6wWnkMfzPSI3x_kCJM9zW8monNdC10EktEGbl9/s1600-h/Picture3.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="36" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhG0dz_ZJkcxQQBmyzRt_kVa0J0v4xN1-Vpb_mKK241oRBEjSagLV34mTc8-qlDtoMIyzq_SLrNt0NmHLBgxM7d-HAXMPuyG3zpHOQLLo6wWnkMfzPSI3x_kCJM9zW8monNdC10EktEGbl9/s320/Picture3.png" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">DEMIKIAN JUGA KALAU ALAT DIPAKAI UT MENGUKUR LUAS</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1lmf1djtMY1iEejJTwsEZxdNaksn9WxkANl2Jy1WGGNb71qpYQrkZ-ke_U5NYQZfOS5zEqrh0O1q_f0acJ4mkNlWY5LV93Jtp7EkYMG8T__E7AW2MUAE3x-HTqCDA9HOOGkUantwISUAh/s1600-h/Picture4.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1lmf1djtMY1iEejJTwsEZxdNaksn9WxkANl2Jy1WGGNb71qpYQrkZ-ke_U5NYQZfOS5zEqrh0O1q_f0acJ4mkNlWY5LV93Jtp7EkYMG8T__E7AW2MUAE3x-HTqCDA9HOOGkUantwISUAh/s320/Picture4.png" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">2.2 PELURUSAN YANG KURANG SEMPURNA </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj38k7FIANQuUBlkPA4Qf-Wnza632ZWXd3kfaLLSJIe8g84jqFQfGuucbnfBL-fescBSYeOy3doE9SdgZWG5tvyHftCAIblhT_DsdpCq6uDMtnAvKTCZDQRKolnRuEmQrrCth_RK7b6A7A1/s1600-h/Picture12.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="66" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj38k7FIANQuUBlkPA4Qf-Wnza632ZWXd3kfaLLSJIe8g84jqFQfGuucbnfBL-fescBSYeOy3doE9SdgZWG5tvyHftCAIblhT_DsdpCq6uDMtnAvKTCZDQRKolnRuEmQrrCth_RK7b6A7A1/s200/Picture12.png" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">DIMANA : d = PENYIMPANAGAN PITA UKUR DARI GARIS LURUS</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"> L = PANJANG PITA UKUR</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">2.3 PENDATARAN YANG KURANG SEMPURNA </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">APABILA PITA UKUR TDK MENDATAR TP TERJADI MELENGKUNG DI TENGAH <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> PENGUKURAN AKAN LEBIH PANJANG. BILA d JARANG LENGKUNG DARI PITA SEBENARNYA, MAKA KESALAHAN JARAK YG TERJADI :</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidxht7Js3xPz8_rMuTx1TqCPSVi1_11CIBwwZt4sDajsaoA84tpgvV5Xy5rE_8e1pykdoxMsDSHIUbcnywUCTqBRmsUhrNCtMb-5qAtscSoUDq23XTQdYS_7jvM2EnKWX3W_SJXp13Uflz/s1600-h/Picture13.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="66" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidxht7Js3xPz8_rMuTx1TqCPSVi1_11CIBwwZt4sDajsaoA84tpgvV5Xy5rE_8e1pykdoxMsDSHIUbcnywUCTqBRmsUhrNCtMb-5qAtscSoUDq23XTQdYS_7jvM2EnKWX3W_SJXp13Uflz/s200/Picture13.png" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">2.4 KEMIRINGAN MEDAN LAPANGAN </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">BILA KEMIRINGAN MEDAN TIDAK SERAGAM DAN DIUKUR DENGAN MEMBENTANGKAN PITA UKUR DGN JARAK PENDEK-PENDEK AKAN TIDAK MENJADI MASALAH BILA UNTING-UNTING DAN YALON BISA DIBUAT MENDATAR</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://aspirasi.blogdetik.com/wp-content/blogs.dir/22777/files/parsolu-di-tao-toba/img_0114_1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://aspirasi.blogdetik.com/wp-content/blogs.dir/22777/files/parsolu-di-tao-toba/img_0114_1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">2.5 KELENTURAN KARENA BERAT PITA UKUR </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2cSg_UiKjTNK7CFt8ORwGmKuYGadnDnkZ-2cK0jd9yVCmyOLjOdlJc52iOUmYQDgbhBAsE7VPTXkVMmZVH_8f79V-q2VneQH_U-WLmnMmcNdVK-t9TDcH8RIePoHlgfr2OmjKm6Hryrd4/s1600-h/Picture14.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2cSg_UiKjTNK7CFt8ORwGmKuYGadnDnkZ-2cK0jd9yVCmyOLjOdlJc52iOUmYQDgbhBAsE7VPTXkVMmZVH_8f79V-q2VneQH_U-WLmnMmcNdVK-t9TDcH8RIePoHlgfr2OmjKm6Hryrd4/s320/Picture14.png" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">2.6 VARIASI TEMPERATURE UDARA </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg97Llt0Sor9aB7a5gv9EYVlo2HG_bKcJUD3Jn4R5wwn06JHysd9SVtRFN-y2JE6VGcJlCj-MlXvtiOY1AB_Y492mP-ApIHdZJBOQpk6YzUoWgONnXy-GuUacNt3-Mu326vi-9HYYBKkk8i/s1600-h/Picture15.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="123" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg97Llt0Sor9aB7a5gv9EYVlo2HG_bKcJUD3Jn4R5wwn06JHysd9SVtRFN-y2JE6VGcJlCj-MlXvtiOY1AB_Y492mP-ApIHdZJBOQpk6YzUoWgONnXy-GuUacNt3-Mu326vi-9HYYBKkk8i/s200/Picture15.png" width="200" /></a> L = jarak terukur </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: 36pt;">C = koefisien muai panjang </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: 36pt;">T = beda temperature thd temp standart </div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>3. KESALAHAN RANDOM / TAK TERDUGA<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal">KESALAHAN RANDOM TERJADI KARENA HAL-HAL YG TDK TERDUGA:</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">GETARAN UDARA / UNDULASI</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KONDISI TANAH TEMPAT BERDIRI ALAT</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KECEPATAN UDARA ATAU KONDISI ATMOSFER</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KONDISI PENGAMAT</li>
</ol></ol><div class="MsoNormal">BIASANYA KESALAHAN INI TERLIHAT BILA SUATU BESARAN DIUKUR BERULANG ULANG NILAINYA TIDAK SAMA ANTARA UKURAN SATU DGN YANG LAIN.</div><div class="MsoNormal">BILA DILAKUKAN n KALI PENGAMATAN DENGAN HASIL PENGUKURAN X1, X2, X3 ………</div><div class="MsoNormal">MAKA BESAR PENGUKURAN YANG BENAR :</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjusTUC57tKqhI8JXOZX1saPb60ZtZS2_fcA3HxL_H9_DItT8CMvPnndGk9A2XY3RkeRT7b6Cp_m6FDlVK9AyfC1xlSjAAl3A_mkHdr0iMqy84MNA_crZ6g_Lj2LLO38X4Cbg1V-8yozsdi/s1600-h/Picture16.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="92" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjusTUC57tKqhI8JXOZX1saPb60ZtZS2_fcA3HxL_H9_DItT8CMvPnndGk9A2XY3RkeRT7b6Cp_m6FDlVK9AyfC1xlSjAAl3A_mkHdr0iMqy84MNA_crZ6g_Lj2LLO38X4Cbg1V-8yozsdi/s320/Picture16.png" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal">CARA MENGHILANGKAN KESALAHAN INI </div><div class="MsoNormal">CARA MENGHILANGKAN KESALAHAN INI :</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">MENGGUNAKAN ALAT PRESISI TINGGI</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">WAKTU PENGAMBILAN DATA <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> PAGI 07.00-11.00, SORE 14.00-17.00, ALAT UKUR DIPAYUNGI</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">MENGGUNAKAN METODE PENGOLAHAN DATA TERTENTU (GRAFIS, BOUWDITCH, PERATAAN, KUADRAT TERKECIL, DLL) </li>
</ol></ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">DALAM IUT, HASIL PENGAMATAN DIKOREKSI DENGAN METODE ILMU HITUNG PERATAAN (ADJUSTMENT).</div><div class="MsoNormal">KESALAHAN SISTEMATIK TIDAK DAPAT DIKOREKSI, MISAL: KESALAHAN SISTEMATIK “s” MAKA DALAM “n” PENGAMATAN TERDAPAT KESALAHAN “s.n”</div><div class="MsoNormal">HASIL KOREKSI RATA-RATA : (s.n/n) = n <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> TETAP ADA / TDK HILANG</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">AKURASI vs PRESISI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal">DALAM IUT, BERBICARA TTG KETELITIAN ADA 2 PENGERTIAN ATAU ISTILAH YANG HAMPIR SAMA :</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">AKURASI (<i>ACCURACY</i>)</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal"> AKURASI ATAU KESAKSAMAAN ADALAH TINGKAT KEDEKATAN DARI NILAI-NILAI UKURAN TERHADAP NILAI YANG SEBENARNYA. APABILA NILAI –NILAI UKURAN SEMAKIN MENDEKATI NILAI SEBENARNYA YANG BERARTI PENYIMPANGAN ATAU KESALAHAN SEMAKIN KECIL, BERARTI SEMAKIN TINGGI AKURASINYA</div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-indent: -18pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span> PRESISI (<i>PRECISION</i>)</div><div class="MsoNormal"> PRESISI ATAU KETELITIAN ADALAH TINGKAT KEDEKATAN DARI NILAI-NILAI UKURAN TERSEBUT SATU SAMA LAINYA, YANG DAPAT DIHITUNG DARI BESAR-KECILNYA HARGA VARIAN (τ<sup>2</sup>) DARI PENGAMATAN</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgwDGRRWY-1de7QGu2lg2MKmZqsjS_A49YWDCM5VIuTq7Ly7W_lt1Eg2IFuIh7z8K4QSSBT0s69LVJ_znPtyDuARs3RjPRSmtY-WYYF10bVFW_RtMXNpbkN5AY-nKv2Zxd6PGg4V7-Dsv6/s1600-h/Picture10.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgwDGRRWY-1de7QGu2lg2MKmZqsjS_A49YWDCM5VIuTq7Ly7W_lt1Eg2IFuIh7z8K4QSSBT0s69LVJ_znPtyDuARs3RjPRSmtY-WYYF10bVFW_RtMXNpbkN5AY-nKv2Zxd6PGg4V7-Dsv6/s320/Picture10.png" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>4. </b>CARA-CARA MENGHINDARI KEMUNGKINAN KESALAHAN</div><div class="MsoNormal">KESALAHAN DAPAT DIHINDARI :</div><div class="MsoNormal">PERSIAPAN SEBELUM PELAKSANAAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>TAHU TENTANG TEORI PENGUKURAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>PAHAM DENGAN JENIS-JENIS ALAT UKUR DAN CARA KOREKSINYA</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>MENGUASAI METODE-METODE ILMU HITUNG PERATAAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>BEKERJA DENGAN LOYALITAS TINGGI DAN RASA TANGGUNG JAWAB</div><div class="MsoNormal">WAKTU PELAKSANAAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>MENGHINDARI PELAKSANAAN SURVEY DGN INTENSITAS PANAS TINGGI ( 10.00-14.00)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>PELETAKAN DAN SETTING ALAT</div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-91607819448054898442010-03-13T06:54:00.000+07:002010-03-13T06:54:00.889+07:00SATUAN, ARAH, DAN PENENTUAN POSISI DALAM ILMU UKUR TANAH<meta content="text/html; 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<div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; margin-left: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: small;">SATUAN, ARAH, DAN PENENTUAN POSISI DALAM ILMU UKUR TANAH</span></div><div class="MsoNormal">DATA UKURAN YANG DIPEROLEH DALAM ILMU UKUR TANAH :</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">SUDUT </li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>HORIZONTAL </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>VERTIKAL</div><ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">ARAH ATAU AZIMUT</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">JARAK</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">BEDA TINGGI </li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>1. SATUAN SUDUT</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: red;">SATUAN SUDUT YANG LAZIM DALAM IUT ADA 3 MACAM</span> :</div><div class="MsoNormal">1. <i>SEXAGESIMAL</i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">1 LINGKARAN DIBAGI MENJADI 360 DERAJAT (360<sup>O</sup>), 1 DERAJAT = 60 MENIT (60’), 1 MENIT = 60 SECON (60”)</div><div class="MsoNormal">2. <i>CENTICIMAL</i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">1 LINGKARAN DIBAGI MENJADI 400 GRADE (400<sup>g</sup>), 1 GRADE = 10 DESIGRADE, 1 DESIGRADE = 10 CENTIGRADE (10<sup>c</sup>), 1 CENTIGRADE = 10 MILIGRADE (10<sup>cc</sup>), 1 MILIGRADE = 10 DESIMILIGRADE. ISTILAH GRADE = GON</div><div class="MsoNormal">3. RADIAL</div><div class="MsoNormal"> 1 LINGKARAN DIBAGI MENJADI 2π RADIAN. RADIAN (ρ)</div><div class="MsoNormal">SATUAN YANG TDK LAZIM DIGUNAKAN DALAM IUT, YAITU SATUAN MILITER. SATU LINGKARAN DIBAGI MENJADI 6400 miles.</div><div class="MsoNormal">KETIGA SATUAN DAPAT DIKONVERSIKAN SATU SAMA LAIN :</div><div class="MsoNormal"> 360<sup>O</sup> = 400<sup>g</sup> = 2π RADIAN =6400 miles</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>2. SUDUT ARAH DAN KUADRAN</div><div class="MsoNormal">SUDUT ARAH DALAM IUT TIDAK SAMA DENGAN SUDUT ARAH PADA ILMU UKUR SUDUT (GONEOMETRI)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>IUT <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> SUDUT DIMULAI DARI ARAH UTARA (SUMBU Y POSITIP) KE TIMUR SEARAH JARUM JAM</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>IUS <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> SUDUT DIMULAI DARI ARAH TIMUR (SUMBU X POSITIP) KE UTARA BERLAWANAN ARAH JARUM JAM</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj18JLN6kA26wLBpPgHm6cUKYOpTsbdnQuhcsriWD0aVqwfNkccQkcfA2YWfpEZk7oHyXAorVC9gtjzv8tKd958EVk667bioogEvh4a1UmXUY0Gy263_0EQ_gpVYOPWmaRkZA7orAWwU0yk/s1600-h/Picture20.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj18JLN6kA26wLBpPgHm6cUKYOpTsbdnQuhcsriWD0aVqwfNkccQkcfA2YWfpEZk7oHyXAorVC9gtjzv8tKd958EVk667bioogEvh4a1UmXUY0Gy263_0EQ_gpVYOPWmaRkZA7orAWwU0yk/s200/Picture20.png" width="197" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmwDzo4CFJv80b92z8VLyPlw_4Ph7vjLv4iyRLIbOU6xmg3bJqfbw78iQxDUT3CBx4bd3Tz5MMhss0_hUxt8t8Ac-Yw-v8aQGDksE45R43-Es3wnxz8ewP_VWZy3p_pBhBp4kpRxErU6lZ/s1600-h/Picture21.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="162" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmwDzo4CFJv80b92z8VLyPlw_4Ph7vjLv4iyRLIbOU6xmg3bJqfbw78iQxDUT3CBx4bd3Tz5MMhss0_hUxt8t8Ac-Yw-v8aQGDksE45R43-Es3wnxz8ewP_VWZy3p_pBhBp4kpRxErU6lZ/s200/Picture21.png" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal">DALAM IUT, SUDUT ARAH DINAMAKAN SUDUT JURUSAN ATAU AZIMUT. BERKAITAN DENGAN PERALATAN UKUR TANAH YANGG MENGGUNAKAN KOMPAS SEBAGAI PENUNJUK ARAH, DIKENAL PULA AZIMUT KOMPAS ATAU AZIMUT BOUSSOLE ATAU ISTILAH BEARING.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>IUT <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> KUADRAN SEARAH PUTARAN JARUM JAM</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>IUS <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span> KUADRAN BERLAWANAN ARAH JARUM JAM</div><div class="MsoNormal">NAMUN RUMUS-RUMUS GONEOMETRI SEPENUHNYA DAPAT DIPAKAI DALAM IUT. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>3. SATUAN JARAK</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>4. MATEMATIKA DALAM IUT</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>5. MACAM AZIMUT KOMPAS DAN BERING</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqxzxyoO02BeVrf20Ab3XThNiRzpFsV2sY7GKYvlUaQaHXNeC0L9LC7RZ5pLQ9lgNqIxwWY9RfizAxvpqc_LDDHCe1hnlPMgsKpzJ38rwuxvqbSKW_vyWMpaS9C14EV80FK_KYIryauoMT/s1600-h/Picture22.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqxzxyoO02BeVrf20Ab3XThNiRzpFsV2sY7GKYvlUaQaHXNeC0L9LC7RZ5pLQ9lgNqIxwWY9RfizAxvpqc_LDDHCe1hnlPMgsKpzJ38rwuxvqbSKW_vyWMpaS9C14EV80FK_KYIryauoMT/s320/Picture22.png" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>6. PRINSIP DASAR PENENTUAN POSISI</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">CARA GRAFIS </li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>DENGAN MENGUKUR JARAK-JARAKNYA</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>DENGAN MENGUKUR SUDUT-JARAKNYA</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 180pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">q<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>TRIANGGULASI</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 180pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">q<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>KOORDINAT KUTUB</div><ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">CARA NUMERIS</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>DENGAN SUDUT JURUSAN ATAU AZIMUT DAN JARAK</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>DENGAN PEMOTONGAN KE MUKA (INTERSECTION)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">–<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>DENGAN PEMOTONGAN KE BELAKANG (RESECTION)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">•<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>CARA NUMERIS</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEB_B-yBqr5PqkWwRsohl7MDoHBClSwEO-u8rg3vznM__Rfzw5_l6S_dqd3G_x4psPZwRn_ja-TqG3l3kfPn8ep1PTsE56WDt9chbPSGOdiiyBpblzAAbQrvdYSjjSNre0SA7gAcuKKykK/s1600-h/Picture23.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEB_B-yBqr5PqkWwRsohl7MDoHBClSwEO-u8rg3vznM__Rfzw5_l6S_dqd3G_x4psPZwRn_ja-TqG3l3kfPn8ep1PTsE56WDt9chbPSGOdiiyBpblzAAbQrvdYSjjSNre0SA7gAcuKKykK/s320/Picture23.png" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style="height: 48px; left: 0px; margin-left: 186px; margin-top: 68px; position: absolute; width: 149px; z-index: 1;"></span>APABILA JARAK ANTARA TITIK A DAN B DIUKUR (d AB) DAN DEMIKIAN PULA SUDUT JURUSAN ATAU AZIMUT AB DIUKUR (<span lang="EL">α</span><span lang="EL"> </span>AB) DAN KOORDINAT A (XA, YA), MAKA POSISI TITIK B DAPAT DITENTUKAN DGN RUMUS :</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-JiORHRlAhaQ8E-duRRdJE5M93eyzATywN02ilSVPfxXFVmDSEmNPioNcRSZX-jJJjjoVkowmlMPXfgyzvjr4Zm3PURpgORzb14alEKa5sJA5bHBTQmu49zrpK9BVdhREzjTRfpaevrCz/s1600-h/Picture24.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-JiORHRlAhaQ8E-duRRdJE5M93eyzATywN02ilSVPfxXFVmDSEmNPioNcRSZX-jJJjjoVkowmlMPXfgyzvjr4Zm3PURpgORzb14alEKa5sJA5bHBTQmu49zrpK9BVdhREzjTRfpaevrCz/s320/Picture24.png" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">DEMIKIAN PULA SEBALIKNYA, APABILA DUA BUAH TITIK A DAN B MASING-MASING DIKETAHUI KOORDINTANYA (XA, YA) DAN (XB, YB) MAKA DARI PADANYA DAPAT DITENTUKAN SUDUT JURUSAN DAN JARAKNYA. </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjflfDCOTE_mi5p8UNKzOrqHj-7gS6BMgXwrQlRP1HPQNVwCSZ_AGfcCGEHvQlelaaS4cM6hbAj0cwrypx_9bxCMBcLV1MO0unNu3Rn7iC9M02EG3S_6xoRXrbg6_qnHQ32wg_7bUeAyXC9/s1600-h/Picture25.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjflfDCOTE_mi5p8UNKzOrqHj-7gS6BMgXwrQlRP1HPQNVwCSZ_AGfcCGEHvQlelaaS4cM6hbAj0cwrypx_9bxCMBcLV1MO0unNu3Rn7iC9M02EG3S_6xoRXrbg6_qnHQ32wg_7bUeAyXC9/s320/Picture25.png" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"> <br />
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<div class="MsoNormal"><b>ILMU UKUR TANAH<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal">PENDAHULUAN </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOaPOFZ_p2oWh4JW84hMGvHmqzbWIRlXOPRThVwf2YPMlbHmvCLqYO-p0HHISkc2mzYdQw8sa7uHQEsjPq3JlV2myGrZurzzKUe0vKmcydSk-l4C-982v9FCXM0nv9rUMgy1umYM06wCY6/s1600-h/Picture19.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOaPOFZ_p2oWh4JW84hMGvHmqzbWIRlXOPRThVwf2YPMlbHmvCLqYO-p0HHISkc2mzYdQw8sa7uHQEsjPq3JlV2myGrZurzzKUe0vKmcydSk-l4C-982v9FCXM0nv9rUMgy1umYM06wCY6/s400/Picture19.png" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal">GEODESI MENCAKUP KAJIAN DAN PENGUKURAN LEBIH LUAS, TIDAK SEKEDAR PEMETAAN DAN PENENTUAN POSISI DI DARAT, NAMUN JUGA DIDASAR LAUT UNTUK BERBAGAI KEPERLUAN, JUGA PENENTUAN BENTUK DAN DEMENSI BUMI BAIK DENGAN PENGUKURAN DIBUMI DAN DENGAN BANTUAN PESAWAT UDARA, MAUPUN DENGAN SATELIT DAN SISTEM INFORMASINYA.</div><div class="MsoNormal">ILMU UKUR TANAH DIDEFINISIKAN ILMU YANG MENGAJARKAN TENTANG TEKNIK-TEKNIK / CARA-CARA PENGUKURAN DIPERMUKAAN BUMI DAN BAWAH TANAH DALAM AREAL YANG TERBATAS (±20’-20’ ATAU 37 Km x 37 Km) UNTUK KEPERLUAAN PEMETAAN DLL.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">MENGINGAT AREAL YANG TERBATAS , MAKA UNSUR KELENGKUNGAN PERMUKAAN BUMI DAPAT DIABAIKAN SEHINGGA SISTEM PROYEKSINYA MENGGUNAKAN PROYEKSI ORTHOGONAL DIMANA SINAR-SINAR PROYEKTOR SALING SEJAJAR ATAU SATU SAMA LAIN DAN TEGAK LURUS BIDANG PROYEKSI. SEDANGKAN PADA PETA DAPAT DIDEFINISIKAN SEBAGAI GAMBARAN DARI SEBAGIAN PERMUKAAAN BUMI PADA BIDANG DATAR DENGAN SKALA DAN SISTEM PROYEKSI TERTENTU.</div><div class="MsoNormal">UNTUK MEMUDAHKAN PENENTUAN SUATU WILAYAH, MAKA BUMI DIBATASI MENJADI GARIS BUJUR DAN GARIS LINTANG</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyUUAGFgai1V-L1nkgMzMIX9Gy4Wc1Lzd4NY_9VCOJkj8oCN510D4eROkBw40HX0chUUlULj6JehXOK4AtAuli1lHga476MFsBfxlQdHZ9WWw073e7DK_akNWCkDEFfGQsH-4mEanygja5/s1600-h/Picture17.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyUUAGFgai1V-L1nkgMzMIX9Gy4Wc1Lzd4NY_9VCOJkj8oCN510D4eROkBw40HX0chUUlULj6JehXOK4AtAuli1lHga476MFsBfxlQdHZ9WWw073e7DK_akNWCkDEFfGQsH-4mEanygja5/s320/Picture17.png" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>JENIS PETA</b></div><div class="MsoNormal">Peta bisa dijeniskan berdasarkan isi, skala, penurunan serta penggunaannya.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Peta berdasarkan isinya:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;">1. Peta hidrografi: memuat informasi tentang kedalaman dan keadaan dasar laut serta informasi lainnya yang diperlukan untuk navigasi pelayaran.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 14.2pt; text-indent: -14.2pt;">2. Peta geologi: memuat informasi tentang keadaan geologis suatu daerah, bahan-bahan pembentuk tanah dll. Peta geologi umumnya juga menyajikan unsur peta topografi.</div><div class="MsoNormal">3. Peta kadaster: memuat informasi tentang kepemilikan tanah beserta batas dll-nya.</div><div class="MsoNormal">4. Peta irigasi: memuat informasi tentang jaringan irigasi pada suatu wilayah.</div><div class="MsoNormal">5. Peta jalan: memuat informasi tentang jejaring jalan pada suatu wilayah </div><div class="MsoNormal">6. Peta Kota: memuat informasi tentang jejaring transportasi, drainase, sarana kota dll-nya.</div><div class="MsoNormal">7. Peta Relief: memuat informasi tentang bentuk permukaan tanah dan kondisinya.</div><div class="MsoNormal">8. Peta Teknis: memuat informasi umum tentang tentang keadaan permukaan bumi yang mencakup kawasan tidak luas. Peta ini dibuat untuk pekerjaan perencanaan teknis skala <br />
1 : 10 000 atau lebih besar. </div><div class="MsoNormal">9. Peta Topografi: memuat informasi umum tentang keadaan permukaan bumi beserta informasi ketinggiannya menggunkan garis kontur. Peta topografi juga disebut sebagai peta dasar.</div><div class="MsoNormal">10. Peta Geografi: memuat informasi tentang ikhtisar peta, dibuat berwarna dengan skala lebih kecil dari </div><div class="MsoNormal"> 1 : 100 000.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>PETA BERDASARKAN SKALANYA</b>:</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">Peta skala besar: skala peta 1 : 10 000 atau lebih besar. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal">Peta skala sedang: skala peta 1 : 10 000 - 1 : 100 000.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">Peta skala kecil: skala peta lebih kecil dari 1 : 100 000.</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal">PETA TANPA SKALA KURANG ATAU BAHKAN TIDAK BERGUNA. SKALA PETA MENUNJUKKAN KETELITIAN DAN KELENGKAPAN INFORMASI YANG TERSAJI DALAM PETA. </div><div class="MsoNormal">PENULISAN SKALA PETA</div><div class="MsoNormal">SKALA PETA DAPAT DINYATAKAN DALAM BEBERAPA CARA :</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal"> ANGKA PERBANDINGAN</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal"> MISAL 1: 1.000.000 MENYATAKAN 1 cm atau 1 inch DI PETA SAMA DENGAN 1.000.000 cm/ inch DIPERMUKAAN BUMI</div><div class="MsoNormal"> 2. PERBANDINGAN NILAI</div><div class="MsoNormal"> MISAL 1 CM UNTUK 10 km</div><div class="MsoNormal"> 3. SKALA BAR ATAU SKALA GARIS</div><div class="MsoNormal"> </div><div class="MsoNormal">GARIS INI DITETAPKAN ATAU DIGAMBARKAN DALAM PETA DAN DIBAGI-BAGI DALAM INTERVAL YANG SAMA, SETIAP INTERVAL MENYATAKAN BESARAN PANJANG YANG TERTENTU. PADA UJUNG LAIN, BIASANYA SATU INTERVAL DIBAGI-BAGI LAGI MENJADI BAGIAN YANG LEBIH KECIL DENGAN TUJUAN AGAR PEMBACA PETA DAPAT MENGUKUR PANJANG DALAM PETA SECARA LEBIH TELITI.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwPtR9kEbZZ38X94qyZcfCS9ycJYqRFAq4vzzUOhVxt_lAwh2jW8OIZQcSaNCj5R_HyJE5HhTuYmAoPv1-mRxx3Ferh1Vkz6XAYFLJgPnoCY3kW3Oj-A11NboE6ihiIItDKInyVXSTQ3Wu/s1600-h/Picture1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwPtR9kEbZZ38X94qyZcfCS9ycJYqRFAq4vzzUOhVxt_lAwh2jW8OIZQcSaNCj5R_HyJE5HhTuYmAoPv1-mRxx3Ferh1Vkz6XAYFLJgPnoCY3kW3Oj-A11NboE6ihiIItDKInyVXSTQ3Wu/s400/Picture1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal">PETA BERDASARKAN PENURUNAN DAN PENGGUNAAN</div><div class="MsoNormal">Peta dasar: digunakan untuk membuat peta turunan dan perencanaan umum maupun pengembangan suatu wilayah. Peta dasar umunya menggunakan peta topografi.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Peta tematik: dibuat atau diturunkan berdasarkan peta dasar dan memuat tema-tema tertentu.</div><div class="MsoNormal">ARTI PENTING PETA (IUT) DALAM TEKNIK SIPIL (REKAYASA)</div><div class="MsoNormal">INFORMASI YANG TERDAPAT DALAM PETA:</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">MERUPAKAN MINIATUR BENTANG ALAM DARI DAERAH YANG TERPETAKAN</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">JARAK, ARAH, BEDA TINGGI DAN KEMIRINGAN DARI SATU TEMPAT KE TEMPAT LAINYA</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">ARAH ALIRAN AIR PERMUKAAN DAN DAERAH TANGKAPAN HUJAN</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">UNSUR-UNSUR ATAU OBYEK YANG TERGAMBAR DI LAPANGAN</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">PERKIRAAN LUAS SUATU WILAYAH</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">POSISI SUATU TEMPAT SECARA RELATIF</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">JARINGAN JALAN DAN TINGKAT ATAU KELASNYA</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">PENGGUNAAN LAHAN, DLL.</li>
</ol></ol><div class="MsoNormal"><b>JENIS PENGUKURAN</b></div><div class="MsoNormal">PENGUKURAN UNTUK PEMBUATAN PETA BISA DIKELOMPOKKAN BERDASARKAN CAKUPAN ELEMEN ALAM, TUJUAN, CARA ATAU ALAT DAN LUAS CAKUPAN PENGUKURAN.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Berdasarkan alam:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Pengukuran daratan (<i>land surveying</i>): antara lain<br />
<i>pengukuran topografi</i>, untuk pembuatan peta topografi, dan <i>pengukuran kadaster</i>, untuk membuat peta kadaster.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Pengukuran perairan (<i>marine or hydrographic surveying</i>): antara lainpengukuran muka dasar laut, pengukuran pasang surut, pengukuran untuk pembuatan pelabuhan dll-nya.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";">—<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Pengukuran astronomi (<i>astronomical survey</i>): untuk menentukan posisi di muka bumi dengan melakukan pengukuran-pengukuran terhadap benda langit.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Berdasarkan tujuan:</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Pengukuran teknik sipil (<i>engineering survey</i>): untuk memperoleh data dan peta pada pekerjaan-pekerjaan teknik sipil.</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Pengukuran untuk keperluan militer (<i>miltary survey</i>).</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Pengukuran tambang (<i>mining survey</i>).</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span>Pengukuran geologi (<i>geological survey</i>).</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Pengukuran arkeologi</b> (<i>archeological survey</i>).</div><div class="MsoNormal">Berdasarkan cara dan alat:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt;">a. Pengukuran triangulasi,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt;">b. Pengukuran trilaterasi,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt;">c. Pengukuran polygon,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt;">d. Pengukuran offset,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt;">e. Pengukuran tachymetri,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt;">f. Pengukuran meja lapangan,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt;">g. Aerial survey,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt;">h. Remote Sensing, dan </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.55pt;">i. GPS.</div><div class="MsoNormal"> a, b, c dan i untuk pengukuran kerangka dasar, d, e, f, g dan h untuk pengukuran detil.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>Berdasarkan luas cakupan daerah pengukuran:<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal">Pengukuran tanah (<i>plane surveying</i>) atau ilmu ukur tanah dengan cakupan pengukuran <br />
37 km x 37 km. Rupa muka bumi bisa dianggap sebagai bidang datar.</div><div class="MsoNormal">Pengukuran geodesi (<i>geodetic surveying</i>) dengan cakupan yang luas. Rupa muka bumi merupakan permukaan lengkung.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>PENGUKURAN DAN PEMETAAN DALAM DAUR PEKERJAAN TEKNIK SIPIL<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal">BANGUNAN-BANGUNAN TEKNIK SIPIL BUKANLAH SISTEM YANG MATI. JARINGAN JALAN MISALNYA, MERUPAKAN SISTEM YANG MEMPUNYAI DAUR HIDUP, YAITU MEMPUNYAI UMUR RENCANA DENGAN ANGGAPAN-ANGGAPAN TERTENTU, MISALNYA VOLUME LALU-LINTAS YANG SELALU BERUBAH DARI WAKTU KE WAKTU. URUTAN DAUR PENGEMBANGAN SEBETULNYA TIDAK HARUS BERUPA LANGKAH DESKRIT DARI AWAL TERUS SELESAI, TETAPI LEBIH MENYERUPAI PROSES YANG MELINGKAR DAN MUNGKIN MELONCAT.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpIs2dVsMdTyzw83CW6pg5LCURuaekSZU1qVRvqxvX4oC6DouN6Yvn3aGzByP0BxJF1zmYuPKbZiOLtfxE7ZFVPuZp_cSKKWRJisosos2nHG1KQAnJdCqmvQKYNL2Pha8vKZTGFYB2aP1Q/s1600-h/Picture18.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="264" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpIs2dVsMdTyzw83CW6pg5LCURuaekSZU1qVRvqxvX4oC6DouN6Yvn3aGzByP0BxJF1zmYuPKbZiOLtfxE7ZFVPuZp_cSKKWRJisosos2nHG1KQAnJdCqmvQKYNL2Pha8vKZTGFYB2aP1Q/s320/Picture18.png" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"> </div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>PROSES PEMETAAN TERISTRIS<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal">PEMETAAN TERISTRIS ADALAH PROSES PEMETAAN YANG PENGUKURANNYA LANGSUNG DILAKUKAN DIPERMUKAAN BUMI DENGAN PERALATAN TERTENTU.</div><div class="MsoNormal">WAHANA PEMETAAN TIDAK HANYA DAPAT DILAKUKAN SECARA TERISTRIS, NAMUN DAPAT PULA SECARA FOTOGRAMETIS (FOTO UDARA), RADARGRAMETRIS (BERBEDA PANJANG GELOMBANG DGN FOTOGRAMETRIS), VIDEOGRAFIS, TEKNOLOGI SATELIT DSB.</div><div class="MsoNormal">DASAR PEMILIHAN WAHANA</div><div class="MsoNormal">PEMILIHAN WAHANA TERSEBUT TERGANTUNG DARI :</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">TUJUAN PEMETAAN</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">TINGKAT KERINCIAAN OBYEK YANG HARUS DISAJIKAN</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">CAKUPAN WILAYAH YANG DIPETAKAN.</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal">BAGAN PEMETAAN TERISTRIS</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh27sV0XORQ2sKyif27tQr5VvBsYDbfZhRVIo6iSCLEgvQOt_tHlorKUvVGJMAyc0RijJBsTDOWElTBa5YmB9EGsqXzDTsOObdCHSVn60M02lboTYQHp8MwVwB-FqBPLutXmZkLNemqPEyf/s1600-h/Picture2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh27sV0XORQ2sKyif27tQr5VvBsYDbfZhRVIo6iSCLEgvQOt_tHlorKUvVGJMAyc0RijJBsTDOWElTBa5YmB9EGsqXzDTsOObdCHSVn60M02lboTYQHp8MwVwB-FqBPLutXmZkLNemqPEyf/s320/Picture2.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"></div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com55tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-51077341654914852112010-03-10T21:33:00.000+07:002010-03-10T21:33:51.912+07:00Pengertian Mekanika Rekayasa<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt;">1. Mekanika rekayasa<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Mekanika teknik</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">atau dikenal juga sebagai mekanika rekayasa atau analisa struktur merupakan bidang ilmu utama yang dipelajari di ilmu teknik sipil. Pokok utama dari ilmu tersebut adalah mempelajari perilaku struktur terhadap beban yang bekerja padanya. Perilaku struktur tersebut umumnya adalah lendutan dan gaya-gaya (gaya reaksi dan gaya internal).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam mempelajari perilaku struktur maka hal-hal yang banyak dibicarakan adalah:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Stabilitas<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">keseimbangan gaya<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kompatibilitas antara deformasi dan jenis tumpuannnya elastisitas<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan mengetahui gaya-gaya dan lendutan yang terjadi maka selanjutnya struktur tersebut dapat direncanakan atau diproporsikan dimensinya berdasarkan material yang digunakan sehingga aman dan nyaman (lendutannya tidak berlebihan) dalam menerima beban tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">2.</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;"> <b>Gaya luar</b></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Adalah muatan dan reaksi yang menciptakan kestabilan atau keseimbangan konstruksi. Muatan yang membebani suatu kontruksi akan dirambatkan oleh kontruksi ke dalam tanah melalui pondasi. Gaya-gaya dari tanah yang memberikan perlawanan terhadap gaya rambat tersebut dinamakan <b>reaksi</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Muatan</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> adalah beban yang membebani suatu konstruksi baik berupa berat kendaraan, kekuatan angin, dan berat angin. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Muatan-muatan tersebut mempunyai besaran, arah, dan garis kerja, misalnya:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Angin bekerja tegak lurus bidang yang menentangnya, dan diperhitungkan misalnya 40 kN/m<sup>2</sup>, arahnya umum mendatar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berat kendaraan, merupakan muatan titik yang mempunyai arh gaya tegak lurus bidang singgung roda, dengan besaran misalnya 5 tN.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Daya air, bekerja tegak lurus dinding di mana ada air, besarnya daya air dihitung secara hidrostatis, makin dalam makin besar dayanya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan pengertian tersebut muatan-muatan dapat dibedakan atas beberapa kelompok menurut cara kerjanya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ada muatan yang bekerjanya sementara dan ada pula yang terus-menerus (permanen). Mutan yang dimaksud adalah:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -27pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Muatan mati, yaitu muatan tetap pada konstruksi yang tidak dapat dipindahkan atau tidak habis. Misalnya:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berat sendiri konstruksi beton misalnya 2200 kN/m<sup>3</sup> , dan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berat tegel pada pelat lantai misalnya 72 kN/m<sup>2</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ada muatan yang garis kerjanya dianggap suatu titik, ada yang tersebar. Muatan yang dimaksud adalah:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -27pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Muatan titik atau muatan terpusat. Yaitu muatan yang garis kerjanya dianggap bekerja melalui satu titik, misalnya:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -27pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berat seseorang melalui kaki misalnya 60 kN dan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -27pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berat kolom pada pondasi misalnya 5000 kN;<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Muatan terbagi ini dapat dijabarkan sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Muatan terbagi rata, yaitu muatan terbagi yang dianggap sama pada setiap satuan luas.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 99pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Muatan terbagi tidak rata teratur, yaitu muatan yang terbagi tidak sama berat untuk setiap satuan luas.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 57.6pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Muatan momen, yaitu muatan momen akibat dari muatan titik pada konstruksi sandaran. Gaya horizontal pada sandaran menyebabkan momen pada balok.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Muatan puntir, suatu gaya nonkoplanar mungkin bekerja pada suatu balok sehingga menimbulkan suatu muatan puntir, namun masih pada batas struktur statik tertentu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam kehiduypan sehari-hari sering dijumpai muatan yang bekerjanya tidak langsung pada konstruksi, seperti penutup atap ditumpu oleh gording dan tidak langsung pada kuda-kuda.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Perletakan </span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perletakan adalah suatu konstruksi direncanakan untuk suatau keperluan tertentu.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tugas utama suatu konstruksi adalah mengumpulkan gaya akibat muatan yang bekerja padanya dan meneruskannya ke bumi. Untuk melaksanakan tugasnya dengan baik maka konstruksi harus berdiri dengan kokoh. Rosenthal menyatakan bahwa semua beban diteruskan ke bumi melalui sesingkat-singkatnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><i><u><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Kondisi yang harus dipertimbangkan?<o:p></o:p></span></u></i></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 54pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: 27pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pertama yang harus dipertimbangkan adalah stabilitas konstruksi. Suatu konstruksi akan stabil bila konstruksi diletakkan di atas pondasi yang baik. Pondasi akan melawan gaya aksi yang diakibatkan oleh muatan yang diteruskan oleh konstruksi kepada pondasi. Gaya lawan yang ditimbulkan pada pondasi disebut: <i>Reaksi.</i> Dalam kasus ini pondasi digambarkan sebagai <b>perletakan. </b>Berikut ini diuraikan tiga jenis perletakan yang merupakan jenis perletakan yang umum digunakan. Yaitu perletakan yang dapat menahan momen, gaya vertikal dan gaya horizontal.dan ada maca-macam perletakan yang perlu dipahami yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perletakan sendi, yaitu perletakan terdiri dari poros dan lubang sendi. Pada perletakan demikian dianggap sendinya licin sempurna, sehingga gaya singgung antara poros dan sendi tetap normal terhadap bidang singgung, dan arah gaya ini akan melalui pusat poros.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perletakan geser, yaitu perletakan yang selalu memiliki lubang sendi. Apabila poros ini licin sempurna maka poros ini hanya dapat meneruskan gaya yang tegak lurus bidang singgung di mana poros ini diletakkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perletakan pendel, yaitu suatu perletakan yang titik tangkap dan garis kerjanya diketahui.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 75.6pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perletakan jepit, perletakan ini seolah-olah dibuat dari balok yang ditanamkan pada perletakannya, demikian sehingga mampu menahan gaya-gaya maupun momen dan bahkan dapat menahan torsi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 57.6pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt;">3. Gaya Dalam</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya dalam adalah gaya rambat yang diimbangi oleh gaya yang berasal dari bahan konstruksi, berupa gaya lawan, dari konstruksi.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Analisis hitungan gaya dalam<b> </b>dan urutan<b> </b>hitungan ini dapat diuraikan secara singkat sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menetapkan dan menyederhanakan konstruksi menjadi suatu sistem yang memenuhi syarat yang diminta.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menetapkan muatan yang bekerja pada konstruksi ini.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menghitung keseimbangan luar.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menghitung keseimbangan dalam.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Memeriksa kembali semua hitungan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan syarat demikian konstruksi yang dibahas akan digambarkan sebagai suatu garis sesuai dengan sumbu konstruksi, yang selanjutnya disebut: <i>Struktur<o:p></o:p></i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Misalkan pada sebuah balok dijepit salah satu ujungnya dan dibebani oleh gaya P seperti pada gambar 3.2.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPLyHjY5A0xwaRZjsyac1VwixvfdPWyZlPKwCdeVQVbZyDVUP1Skrvvz6JmC539L33mT3816wLPKdjD6imT3XKUW5e4lIVuCi7PpHCs54dQ12zHRPA5vLGoqcCvzuje3xjJLcQs4iEsMgX/s1600-h/Graphic15.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPLyHjY5A0xwaRZjsyac1VwixvfdPWyZlPKwCdeVQVbZyDVUP1Skrvvz6JmC539L33mT3816wLPKdjD6imT3XKUW5e4lIVuCi7PpHCs54dQ12zHRPA5vLGoqcCvzuje3xjJLcQs4iEsMgX/s320/Graphic15.jpg" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">gambar 3.2<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">maka dapat diketahui dalam konstruksi tersebut timbul gaya dalam. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Apabila konstruksi dalam keadaan seimbang, maka pada suatu titik X sejauh x dari B akan timbul gaya dalam yang mengimbangi P.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya dalam yang mengimbangi gaya aksi ini tentunya bekerja sepanjang sumbu batang sama besar dan mengarah berlawanan dengan gaya aksi ini. Gaya dalam ini disebut <i>Gaya normal</i> (N).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bila gaya aksi berbalik arah maka berbalik pula arah gaya normalnya. Nilai gaya normal di titik X ini dinyatakan sebagai Nx.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBlbNs3KS507q7zfyqqXQoEI_xn9cFlXA_0CqZmKbRpbUk9q16iuwdhYDB1nEL4tEYmJYncV283iUMwoPJA5hGBJFkgMEeT9HC6BPQDPCPmeppR0s2yo21zS5rsafvzIw6Jkzmf0hS-19h/s1600-h/Graphic16.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBlbNs3KS507q7zfyqqXQoEI_xn9cFlXA_0CqZmKbRpbUk9q16iuwdhYDB1nEL4tEYmJYncV283iUMwoPJA5hGBJFkgMEeT9HC6BPQDPCPmeppR0s2yo21zS5rsafvzIw6Jkzmf0hS-19h/s320/Graphic16.jpg" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: center;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar 3.3<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar 3.3 menggambarkan gaya P yang merambat sampai titik X dan menimbulkan gaya sebesar P’ dan M’. Apabila struktur dalam keadaan seimbang maka tiap-tiap bagian harus pula dalam keadaan seimbang. Selanjutnya gaya P’dan M’ harus pula diimbangi oeh suatu gaya dalam yang sama besar dan berlawanan arah, yaitu gaya dalam Lx dan Mx. Gaya tersebut merupakan sumbangan dari bagian XA yang mengimbangi P’M’.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya dalam yang tegak lurus sumbu disebut Gaya lintang, disingkat LX dan momen yang menahan lentur pada bagian ini disebut Momen Lentur disingkat MX.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari uraian di atas, gaya-gaya dalam dibedakan menjadi tiga :<o:p></o:p></span></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya normal (N), yaitu gaya dalam yang bekerja searah sumbu balok.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya lintang (L), yaitu gaya dalam yang bekerja tegak lurus sumbu balok.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Momen lentur (F), yaitu gaya dalam yang menahan lemtur sumbu balok<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 18pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya dalam bekerja pada titik berat sepanjang garis struktur. Untuk menghitung gaya dalam ini diperlukan pengertian tanda. Menurut perjanjian tanda yang lazim digunakan di dalam Mekanika Rekayasa seperti terlukis pada gambar 4.3.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya Normal diberi tanda positif (+) apabila gaya itu cenderung menimbulkan gaya tarik pada batang dan diberi tanda negatif (-) apabila gaya itu cenderung menimbulkan sifat desak.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya lintang diberi tanda positif (+) apabila gaya itu cenderung menimbulkan patah dan putaran jarum jam, dan diberikan tanda negatif (-) apabila gaya itu cenderung menimbulkan kebalikannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Momen lentur diberi tanda positif (+) apabila gaya itu menyebabkan sumbu batang cekung ke atas dan diberi tanda negatif (-) apabila gaya itu menyebabkan sumbu batang cekung ke bawah.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt;">4. Hubungan antara Muatan, Gaya Lintang, dan Momen<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk membahas pertanyaan tersebut, harus mempelajari suatu struktur sederhana yang dibebani muatan penuh terbagi rata.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 54pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya dalam di m dapat dihitung sebesar:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> M<sub>m </sub>= V<sub>a</sub>.x – ½ qx<sup>2</sup> =<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> ½ qlx – ½ qx<sup>2</sup>...................(1.1)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> L<sub>m</sub> = ½ ql – qx............................(1.2)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Gaya dalam di n dapat dihitung sebesar:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> M<sub>n </sub>= V<sub>a</sub> (x + dx) – 1/2q (x + dx)<sup>2</sup>............(1.4)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> L<sub>n</sub> = ½ qL – q (x + dx)............................(1.5)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Persamaan (1.4) dan (1.5) tersebut dapat ditulis <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Pula sebagai:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> M<sub>n</sub> = M<sub>m</sub> + dM =<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> M<sub>m</sub> + L<sub>m</sub>.dx – q.dx.1/2 dx..............(1.6)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> L<sub>n</sub> = L<sub>m</sub> + dL = L<sub>m</sub> – q.dx........................(1.7)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Persamaan tersebut setelah diselesaikan didapat:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> dM/dx = L<sub>x</sub>..............................................(1.8)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> dL/dx = - q...............................................(1.9)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kiranya perlu ditambahkan bahwa perubahan nilai beban ditiap titik adalah tetap, yang berarti dq/dx = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNoSpacing" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan demikian memang terbukti adanya hubungan antara muatan, gaya lintang dan momen. Hubungan itu tampak pula pada persamaan-persamaan di atas, yaitu: gaya lintang merupakan fungsi turunan dari momen , dan beban merupakan fungsi turunan dari gaya lintang, atau sebaliknya gaya lintang merupakan jumlah integrasi dari beban, dan momen merupakan jumlah integrasi dari gaya lintang.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><u><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">Satuan Konversi untuk Pembebanan <br />
</span></u></b><span lang="IN"><br />
1 <a href="file:///D:/tags/mpa/">mpa</a> = 1000 kpa = 1 ksi <br />
1 mpa = 1 n/mm2 = 10 kg/cm2 = 100t/m2 <br />
1 mpa =100t/m2 = 100.000kg/m2 <br />
1 kpa = 100kg/m2 <br />
1 mpa = 1000 kpa <br />
1 kpa =1kn /m2 1kn =100kg/m2 <br />
fc beton ( mutu beton) missal k 225 kg/cm2 dibagi 10 = 22,5 mpa <br />
fy main ( mutu baja pokok ) = 400 mpa = 40.000t/m2 <br />
fy sec ( mutu baja sengakang = 240 mpa = 24000t/m)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><u><span lang="IN" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">Satuan Konversi untuk Gaya<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN">N = 0.001 kN</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN">[KN] = 1 kN</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN">MN = 1000 kN</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN">lb (pon) = 0044482 kN</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="IN">klb (kilopon) = 4.4482 kN</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAyS3AP7m2QFmztDupCr_Fl-jW_mOokjOGZtdV4Z2OxlggcfTGcGAkwT_MkCOIm1u31bJXPY_x-VzHEWgILUbPkl5FfImmyAIktJV4dcd9lv8AEfD34geqj3uQYJyBvLhPuasPiXPe2yW8/s1600-h/Graphic17.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAyS3AP7m2QFmztDupCr_Fl-jW_mOokjOGZtdV4Z2OxlggcfTGcGAkwT_MkCOIm1u31bJXPY_x-VzHEWgILUbPkl5FfImmyAIktJV4dcd9lv8AEfD34geqj3uQYJyBvLhPuasPiXPe2yW8/s320/Graphic17.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com16tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-83739769123446620752010-03-06T01:37:00.000+07:002010-03-06T01:37:00.506+07:00Menghitung Momen Gaya dalam Statika Bangunan”<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">HMM… nyari2 ARTIKEL BUAT NGISI Tentang Mekanika Rekayasa1…</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">Mata Kuliah yang paling aku sukai yang Membicarakan tentang gaya2.. yang berpengaruh pada suatu bidang..</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">Berhasil menemukan Modul Pembelajarannya… tapi yang ku temuin… dibuat oleh temen2 dari <b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">TIM FAKULTAS TEKNIK<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">UNIVERSITAS NEGERI YOGYAKARTA…<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Judul modul ini adalah “Menghitung Momen Gaya dalam Statika Bangunan” merupakan bahan ajar yang digunakan sebagai panduan praktikum peserta diklat Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan (SMK) untuk membentuk salah satu bagian dari kompetensi Menghitung Statika Bangunan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sebagian isinya..:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pembebanan (<i>loading</i>) pada Konstruksi Bangunan telah diatur pada Peraturan Pembebanan Indonesia untuk gedung (PPIUG) tahun 1983. Oleh karena itu supaya lebih mendalam diharapkan peserta diklat membaca peraturan tersebut, karena dalam uraian berikut hanya diambil sebagian saja.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ada 5 macam pembebanan yaitu :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">a. Beban mati (berat sendiri konstruksi dan bagian lain yang melekat)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">b. Beban hidup (beban dari pemakaian gedung seperti rumah tinggal,<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kantor, tempat pertunjukkkan)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">c. Beban angin (beban yang disebabkan oleh tekanan angin)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">d. Beban gempa (beban karena adanya gempa)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">e. Beban khusus (beban akibat selisih suhu, penurunan, susut dan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">sebagainya)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan wujudnya beban tersebut dapat diidealisasikan sebagai (1) beban terpusat, (2) beban terbagi merata, (3) beban tak merata (beban bentuk segitiga, trapesium dsb). Beban-beban ini membebani konstruksi (balok, kolom, rangka, batang dsb) yang juga diidealisasikan sebagai garis sejajar dengan sumbunya. Beban terpusat adalah beban yang titik singgungnya sangat kecil yang dalam batas tertentu luas bidang singgung tersebut dapat diabaikan. Sebagai contoh beban akibat tekanan roda mobil atau motor, pasangan tembok setengah batu di atas balok, beton ataupun<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">baja dsb. Satuan beban ini dinyatakan dalam Newton atau turunannya kilonewton (kN). Lihat gambar 1.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgjqW4iK7iTgHPXe0UqNxaGVxtQYDYNEM_RQRducQxhvlhptyANidZh6zHeDC8STSOyIdPwEx6enpXm9g7Yq6QrphL_UKvPeAzsyGWQElwmYQK6cMEHoKmzAIkiPry9re2EJzwBqUpyP6g/s1600-h/Graphic1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgjqW4iK7iTgHPXe0UqNxaGVxtQYDYNEM_RQRducQxhvlhptyANidZh6zHeDC8STSOyIdPwEx6enpXm9g7Yq6QrphL_UKvPeAzsyGWQElwmYQK6cMEHoKmzAIkiPry9re2EJzwBqUpyP6g/s640/Graphic1.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Beban merata adalah beban yang bekerja menyentuh bidang konstruksi yang cukup luas yang tidak dapat diabaikan. Beban ini dinyatakan dalam satuan Newton/meter persegi ataupun newton per meter ata u yang sejenisnya lihat gambar 2.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiH73y-kXNyn0K7MEewH6bsKyXUOgU9FF18XgJ-fDtboi1P35C81qc-yPGO8ES3GejzpzUL1fJ1gZSN6bIarrBP73Yu7NG1uvxhuSSkh9K7BCtBqiFL4U97Ori-vZhsUTmesMSqFNPeTezx/s1600-h/Graphic2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="171" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiH73y-kXNyn0K7MEewH6bsKyXUOgU9FF18XgJ-fDtboi1P35C81qc-yPGO8ES3GejzpzUL1fJ1gZSN6bIarrBP73Yu7NG1uvxhuSSkh9K7BCtBqiFL4U97Ori-vZhsUTmesMSqFNPeTezx/s400/Graphic2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Beban tidak merata dapat berupa beban berbentuk segitiga baik satu sisi maupun dua sisi, berbentuk trapesium dsb. Satuan beban ini dalam newton per meter pada bagian ban yang paling besar lihat<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">gambar 3.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhV8IhqN8z5yxzUOsgg3ZAivA_B3D0VcixHYjXQtc8MzKDpTXSNjlYnSNRaXV2Rbx6cd-Ajd1K5ILj1nO7h_iyTTe5EJ2n5RVeAq3vjXlhxfYuXtblaMWT2CYYX-3z4prko_CezCMitoUXE/s1600-h/Graphic3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="270" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhV8IhqN8z5yxzUOsgg3ZAivA_B3D0VcixHYjXQtc8MzKDpTXSNjlYnSNRaXV2Rbx6cd-Ajd1K5ILj1nO7h_iyTTe5EJ2n5RVeAq3vjXlhxfYuXtblaMWT2CYYX-3z4prko_CezCMitoUXE/s400/Graphic3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berikut ini dicuplikkan beberapa beban bahan bangunan menerut PPIUG 1983 halaman 11.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Baja beratnya 7850 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">3</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">,<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Batu gunung beratnya 1500 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">3</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">batu pecah beratnya 1450 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">3</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">,<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">beton beratnya 2200 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">3</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">, <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">beton bertulang beratnya 2400 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">3</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">,<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kayu kelas 1 beratnya 1000 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">3 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">pasangan bata merah 1700 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">3</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Contoh perhitungan beban :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Hitunglah beban yang bekerja pada balok beton bertulang ukuran 30 cm x 60 cm yang ditengah-tengahnya terdapat tembok pasangan setengah batu lebar 15 cm yang dipasang melintang dengan ukuran tinggi 3 m, panjang 4 m.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jawaban :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berat sendiri balok = 0.3 m x 0.6 m x 2400 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">3<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> = 432 kg/m (kg/m gaya)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gravitasi bumi = 10 kg/ms</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">2 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">maka beban menjadi 4320 N/m = 432 kN/m<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berat tembok sebagai beban terpusat sebesar :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">= 0.15 m x 3 m x 4 m x 1700 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">3<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">= 3060 kg (kg gaya) = 30600 N = 30.6 kN<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Secara visual dapat dilihat pada gambar 4.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbDhRL3VmP2hR4oTozTh_C4LVBl1_wCCE7usjXlaCFSUB4m02h7VZOZMIGsF8Jo-pdhUjuKw6XVcskh3SuoWkRVYNTiQ9C1jZE0Oz4EA_8aGArLrYysAUfNGDwkoMS-FkKQsN6EfrJ7Hib/s1600-h/Graphic4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbDhRL3VmP2hR4oTozTh_C4LVBl1_wCCE7usjXlaCFSUB4m02h7VZOZMIGsF8Jo-pdhUjuKw6XVcskh3SuoWkRVYNTiQ9C1jZE0Oz4EA_8aGArLrYysAUfNGDwkoMS-FkKQsN6EfrJ7Hib/s320/Graphic4.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada konstruksi bangunan beban yang diperhitungkan bukan hanya beban mati seperti yang telah diuraikan di atas, tetapi dikombinasikan dengan beban hidup yang disebut dengan pembebanan tetap, bahkan ada kombinasi yang lain seperti dengan beban angin menjadi pembebanan sementara. Bila pada contoh di atas, balok digunakan untuk menyangga ruang rumah tinggal keluarga, maka menurut PPIUG halaman 17 besarnya beban hidup sebesar 200 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">2</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. Bila luas lantai yang dipikul balok sebesar 2 m tiap panjang balok (dalam contoh di atas beban lantai tidak dihitung) maka beban karena beban hidup adalah 200 kg/m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">2 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">x 2 m = 400 kg/m (kg gaya/m) = 4000 N/m = 4 kN/m. Dengan demikian beban tetap yang bekerja pada balok adalah 4,32 + 4 = 8,32 kN/m yang secara visual dapat dilihat<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">pada gambar 5.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7-n6BwdwOK1P_eCzetGdt2QiMGsnqhmVYsVLpK2KIFV68nukkkyXbhFboIWN760iaNK6NfDJbNlCWN4L3SQbyGIaLgeOw5Su_XpAmVxHRQJJW_Edj1cofbS0RcfixrY_4R7dxfXMfJibI/s1600-h/Graphic5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7-n6BwdwOK1P_eCzetGdt2QiMGsnqhmVYsVLpK2KIFV68nukkkyXbhFboIWN760iaNK6NfDJbNlCWN4L3SQbyGIaLgeOw5Su_XpAmVxHRQJJW_Edj1cofbS0RcfixrY_4R7dxfXMfJibI/s320/Graphic5.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dilihat dari persentuhan gaya dan yang dikenai gaya, beban dapat dibedakan sebagai beban langsung dan beban tidak langsung. Beban langsung adalah beban yang langsung mengenai benda, sedang beban tidak langsung adalah beban yang membebani benda dengan perantaraan benda lain (lihat gambar 6 ).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrQ4HvurG5AAb7TbhKngrGEW67P1KVZyO5yzszK0m68H3R0q_n2m0xmyfNFeai2r8FWMCXVvGL0lVoxAOjdVqA-_rUEpRMaxky5rWOU8T2AzBWV-_c9YYsbtBrEGkxIOJgo5s5aGGPGK2h/s1600-h/Graphic6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrQ4HvurG5AAb7TbhKngrGEW67P1KVZyO5yzszK0m68H3R0q_n2m0xmyfNFeai2r8FWMCXVvGL0lVoxAOjdVqA-_rUEpRMaxky5rWOU8T2AzBWV-_c9YYsbtBrEGkxIOJgo5s5aGGPGK2h/s320/Graphic6.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">a. Pengertian Gaya<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya dapat didefisinikan sebagai sesuatu yang menyebabkan benda (titik materi) bergerak baik dari diam maupun dari gerak lambat menjadi lebih lambat maupun lebih cepat. Dalam teknik bangunan gaya berasal dari bangunan itu sendiri berat<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">benda di atasnya atau yang menempelnya, tekanan angin, gempa, perubahan suhu dan pengaruh pengerjaan. Gaya dapat digambarkan dalam bentuk garis (atau<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kumpulan garis) yang memiliki dimensi besar, garis kerja, arah kerja dan titik tangkap. Satuan gaya menurut Sistem Satuan Internasional (SI) adalah Newton dan turunannya (kN). Akan tetapi ada yang memberi satuan kg gaya (kg). Bila gravitasi bumi diambil<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">10 m/detik</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">2 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">maka hubungan satuan tersebut adalah 1 kg gaya (atau sering ditulis 1 kg) ekuivalen dengan 10 Newton. Pada gambar 8 dijelaskan pengertian gaya tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgn2lWlzaEoiB4L0G_XjBp0Pq5p5oszsipqyhVoAnEqla-xkpGH_phLAjpRuACiNQwb4eSRB5ATRZc4qAT5XPOyhojS4OEAO-S3jVlBd56nXuo6GGB8AN3bN1aQj5mZyHFm7gGj4xhPUgtd/s1600-h/Graphic7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgn2lWlzaEoiB4L0G_XjBp0Pq5p5oszsipqyhVoAnEqla-xkpGH_phLAjpRuACiNQwb4eSRB5ATRZc4qAT5XPOyhojS4OEAO-S3jVlBd56nXuo6GGB8AN3bN1aQj5mZyHFm7gGj4xhPUgtd/s320/Graphic7.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">b. Kesetaraan gaya<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kesetaraan gaya adalah “kesamaan pengaruh” antara gaya pengganti (resultan) dengan gaya yang diganti (gaya komponen) tanpa memperhatikan titik tangkap gayanya. Dengan demikian pada suatu keadaan tertentu, walaupun gaya sudah setara atau ekuivalen, ada perbedaan pengaruh antara gaya pengganti dengan yang diganti. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada prinsipnya gaya dikatakan setara apabila gaya pengganti dan penggantinya baik gerak translasi maupun rotasi besarnya sama. Pada gambar 9 gaya P yang bertitik tangkap di A dipindahkan di B dalam garis kerja yang sama adalah setara (dalam arti efek gerak translasi dan rotasinya) tetapi hal ini dapat berpengaruh terhadap jenis gaya yang dialami benda, pada waktu titik tangkap gaya di A mengalami gaya tekan, sedang pada waktu di B benda mengalami gaya tarik.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBoeY6XMMW8etlR6cQ4EiVzoFiatCVcT6TcNbOik4nFTtGhumMyZ6hjvtDhjxGGmHTiJuXiClp2BXHMMJ3nMB7OJHpWLsK90ZxvABNbLWEUApde9WWfnBBINlyNWUZhVjVdI2SDLlqVUy7/s1600-h/Graphic8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBoeY6XMMW8etlR6cQ4EiVzoFiatCVcT6TcNbOik4nFTtGhumMyZ6hjvtDhjxGGmHTiJuXiClp2BXHMMJ3nMB7OJHpWLsK90ZxvABNbLWEUApde9WWfnBBINlyNWUZhVjVdI2SDLlqVUy7/s320/Graphic8.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">c. Keseimbangan Gaya<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Keseimbangan gaya adalah hampir sama dengan kesetaraan gaya bedanya pada arah gayanya. Pada kesetaraan gaya antara gaya pengganti dengan gaya yang diganti arah yang dituju sama, sedang pada keseimbangan gaya arah yang dituju berlawanan, gaya pengganti (reaksi) arahnya menuju titik awal dari gaya yang diganti (aksi). Pada gambar 10 divisualisasikan keseimbangan gaya.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8VfBIryf2RojMBMlLKg1T6tL65lN-xNITiK0pf07vBmAHXSmT3hs-uwPl16wRkTAR9ngnri4qfPRCdBX17GpBqD42GtyR9ihbkY_d2LtAg2g86w1Yue4FlE9b7wD4tH0CG4c_3lqgX9Gu/s1600-h/Graphic9.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8VfBIryf2RojMBMlLKg1T6tL65lN-xNITiK0pf07vBmAHXSmT3hs-uwPl16wRkTAR9ngnri4qfPRCdBX17GpBqD42GtyR9ihbkY_d2LtAg2g86w1Yue4FlE9b7wD4tH0CG4c_3lqgX9Gu/s320/Graphic9.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan kata lain keseimbangan gaya yang satu garis kerja dapat dikatakan bahwa gaya aksi dan reaksi besarnya sama tapi arahnya berlawanan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada statika bidang (koplanar) ada dua macam keseimbangan yaitu keseimbangan translasi (keseimbangan gerak lurus) dan keseimbangan rotasi (keseimbangan gerak berputar). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk mencapai keseimbangan dalam statika disyaratkan ? Gy = 0 (jumlah gaya vertikal = 0), ?Gx = 0 (jumlah gaya horisontal = 0) dan ?M=0 (jumlah momen pada sebuah titik =0)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">d. Pengertian Momen<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Momen gaya terhadap suatu titik didefisinikan sebagai hasil kali antara gaya dengan jaraknya ke titik tersebut. Jarak yang dimaksud adalah jarak tegak lurus dengan gaya tersebut. Momen dapat diberi tanda positif atau negatif bergantung dari perjanjian<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">yang umum, tetapi dapat juga tidak memakai perjanjian umum, yang penting bila arah momen gaya itu berbeda tandanya harus berbada. Pada gambar 11 diperlihatkan momen gaya terhadap suatu titik.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6-Qy4Yx8oI27dLsyNxIE3srGdauOD207vnBB7dbGie3deRfb35M2HPxKPIn_OqtkMccjUm-eOghU6njE_fAnh98dRMpnAcdZ6UOEIADIs7fYqiY7q40-1gwndnf4wFX-XlQli_J65vNR7/s1600-h/Graphic10.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6-Qy4Yx8oI27dLsyNxIE3srGdauOD207vnBB7dbGie3deRfb35M2HPxKPIn_OqtkMccjUm-eOghU6njE_fAnh98dRMpnAcdZ6UOEIADIs7fYqiY7q40-1gwndnf4wFX-XlQli_J65vNR7/s320/Graphic10.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Di samping momen terhadap suatu titik ada juga momen kopel yang didefinisikan sebagai momen akibat adanya dua buah gaya yang sejajar dengan besar sama tetapi arahnya berlawanan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gambar 12 menunjukkan momen kopel tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvSkyY3xMRBcX1wDntdM7kchdnLv8KG7E9qKp9CuJYnH3_USVWrCfgz0xCfqQPHdbPj8oxI684x-Mm5N80or_MrmvkRrs1rrmfGrTcbSj9fdd8zJP_jg9S9kA4QJD9aUmOhv20DVxY4oz6/s1600-h/Graphic11.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvSkyY3xMRBcX1wDntdM7kchdnLv8KG7E9qKp9CuJYnH3_USVWrCfgz0xCfqQPHdbPj8oxI684x-Mm5N80or_MrmvkRrs1rrmfGrTcbSj9fdd8zJP_jg9S9kA4QJD9aUmOhv20DVxY4oz6/s320/Graphic11.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Momen dapat digambar dalam bentuk vektor momen dengan aturan bahwa arah vektor momen merupakan arah bergeraknya sekrup yang diputar oleh momen. Lihat gambar 13.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUI2G4ardXtUxIV0p6DidRuagNFuKLSXmV8u_0RAyiTbdwf8RgdzVqo-tagT9GzYs8k8G2rIj_KLZU9ZJhNj4vn50U9Q_2hqf90gRQRLCgtTDYISRIwc0Ikn2XDoPxJDX9L34V_yJpiuMh/s1600-h/Graphic12.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUI2G4ardXtUxIV0p6DidRuagNFuKLSXmV8u_0RAyiTbdwf8RgdzVqo-tagT9GzYs8k8G2rIj_KLZU9ZJhNj4vn50U9Q_2hqf90gRQRLCgtTDYISRIwc0Ikn2XDoPxJDX9L34V_yJpiuMh/s320/Graphic12.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">e. Momen Statis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menurut teori Varignon momen pada suatu titik dikatakan statis bila besarnya momen gaya pengganti (resultan) sama dengan gaya yang diganti.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings3; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">? </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Contoh <b>:<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya P</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">1 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan P</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">2 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dengan jarak<i>l</i>mempunyai resultan R. Tentukan letak R agar momen di titik A statis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings3; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">? </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jawab :<o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" /> </span> <br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgs5XWUeBfj9f_ON2g1Z9WjIZic7UQGAcCtjMbSSkAWON82DIInp-hD1LEpYLUOMxAal5BZuZ0vmHxrMDaRAbJBuiKdLryFGDR7barPd0RNfYsbw03P1K2M-TD86Mw3-Z-39S4OPtUw5LIo/s1600-h/Graphic13.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgs5XWUeBfj9f_ON2g1Z9WjIZic7UQGAcCtjMbSSkAWON82DIInp-hD1LEpYLUOMxAal5BZuZ0vmHxrMDaRAbJBuiKdLryFGDR7barPd0RNfYsbw03P1K2M-TD86Mw3-Z-39S4OPtUw5LIo/s320/Graphic13.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Misal jarak R dengan P</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; line-height: 150%;">1 </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(titik A) = a, maka untuk memenuhi momen<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">statis di A adalah : momen resultan = jumlah momen komponen.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNONtBzBnIoyfH042tgK3okJ8Oqwbd65RNYryuulw_nRXYy5Jd_yq75En1Y9uX7TSapNaxkDeovXUqKVbaGX-T2Ij4ryw38LbfreC5lmr6R5msdIJfCVy8Xf6aAY__UYIpcqjFNG6usZMa/s1600-h/Graphic14.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="88" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNONtBzBnIoyfH042tgK3okJ8Oqwbd65RNYryuulw_nRXYy5Jd_yq75En1Y9uX7TSapNaxkDeovXUqKVbaGX-T2Ij4ryw38LbfreC5lmr6R5msdIJfCVy8Xf6aAY__UYIpcqjFNG6usZMa/s200/Graphic14.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">f. Menyusun Gaya yang Setara<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Istilah lain menyusun gaya adalah memadu gaya atau mencari resultan gaya. Pada prinsipnya gaya-gaya yang dipadu harus setara (ekuivalen) dengan gaya resultannya<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menyusun Gaya yang Kolinier<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menyusun Dua Gaya yang Konkuren</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menyusun Beberapa Gaya Konkuren</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Juga dikasih tau cara mencari besar dan arah resultan. Dengan cara Analisi dan Grafis..<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk Materi Lebih Lengkapnya <a href="http://www.ziddu.com/download/8788250/menghitung_momen_gaya_dlm_statika_bangunan-1.pdf.html">download aja DISINI</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com35tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4210509219181525242.post-41701848021819898562010-03-04T23:30:00.000+07:002010-03-04T23:30:00.968+07:00STRUKBANG 1<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CAdmin%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link> <m:smallfrac m:val="off"> <m:dispdef> <m:lmargin m:val="0"> <m:rmargin m:val="0"> <m:defjc m:val="centerGroup"> <m:wrapindent m:val="1440"> <m:intlim m:val="subSup"> <m:narylim m:val="undOvr"> </m:narylim></m:intlim> </m:wrapindent><style>
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 22pt; line-height: 115%;">STRUKTUR BANGUNAN GEDUNG<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: red; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Struktur Bangunan <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal">Pertemuan I</div><div class="MsoNormal">MACAM BANGUNAN</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">GEDUNG</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">TRANSPORTASI</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">AIR</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1.1 GEDUNG :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">A. PRIVATE/ PEMUKIMAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">RUMAH TINGGAL</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">RUMAH SUSUN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">KONDOMINIUM</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">VILLA DLL</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">B. PUBLIK </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">PENDIDIKAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">PERKANTORAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">GEDUNG PERTEMUAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">GEDUNG LAYANAN KESEHATAN</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">GRDUNG PERTUNJUKAN DLL </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">C. INDUSTRI </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">PABRIK</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">PLTA/ PLTD/PLTU</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">PDAM</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">INSTALASI KHUSUS (IPAL, PLTN)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">PENGERTIAN STRUKTUR <o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">STRUKTUR PADA BANGUNAN DAPAT DIARTIKAN SEBAGAI TULANG-TULANG RANGKA PADA BADAN MANUSIA. DENGAN ADANYA RANGKA TERSEBUT, MAKA BADAN MANUSIA DAPAT TEGAK BERDIRI DAN BERFUNGSI MENJALANKAN PEKERJAAN DENGAN SEMPURNA. PADA BANGUNAN, STRUKTUR MERUPAKAN KERANGKA SOSOK BANGUNAN KESELURUHAN YANG MEMUNGKINKAN BANGUNAN BERDIRI SEMPURNA.</div><div class="MsoNormal">PADA DASARNYA, STRUKTUR BANGUNAN DAPAT DIKELOMPOKKAN KE DALAM DUA BAGIAN, YAITU:</div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">STRUKTUR PEMIKUL BEBAN BANGUNAN, YANG TERDIRI ATAS PONDASI DENGAN SEGALA PERLENGKAPANNYA</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">RANGKA BANGUNAN, YANG MELIPUTI PENYANGGA, LANTAI, ATAP, DAN BAGIAN-BAGIAN BANGUNAN LAINNYA </li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 18pt;">PERANCANGAN BANGUNAN BIASANYA DIMULAI DARI PERANCANGAN DENAH DAN DIIKUTI DENGAN TAMPAK, DAN POTONGANNYA. PERANCANGAN STRUKTUR BIASANYA BELAKANGAN, SETELAH DIKAITKAN DENGAN RANCANGAN POTONGAN BANGUNAN.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 18pt;">TETAPI HAL TERSEBUT TIDAK SELALU BERLAKU DEMIKIAN. ADA KALANYA PERANCANGAN STRUKTUR BAGUNAN TERSEBUT DILAKUKAN SECARA SIMULTAN, BERSAMAAN TAHAP PEMIKIRANNYA DENGAN TAHAP PEMIKIRAN DENAH, TAMPAK, DAN POTONGAN BANGUNAN. MENGENAI CARA MANA YANG PALING TEPAT, SANGAT TERGANTUNG DARI MASING-MASING PERENCANA; BIASANYA TERGANTUNG PULA PADA JENIS BANGUNAN YANG HARUS DIRANCANG.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 21.3pt;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuy1pw33Or5hHOd0IR8W_IgnFiGRBw-4r4u_KDKJexsoXpnMECBKf_HvgU-DoWizLfrnL_XTzLdnOJul1Qc2LSZBdclFg_okDLtHioi4izrFXbXV0OL8bsdJNuyBqkhe500DUr0bwwWl0C/s1600-h/Picture1.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuy1pw33Or5hHOd0IR8W_IgnFiGRBw-4r4u_KDKJexsoXpnMECBKf_HvgU-DoWizLfrnL_XTzLdnOJul1Qc2LSZBdclFg_okDLtHioi4izrFXbXV0OL8bsdJNuyBqkhe500DUr0bwwWl0C/s320/Picture1.png" /></a>TERLEPAS DARI LANGKAH MANAPUN YANG AKAN KITA LAKUKAN LEBIH DAHULU, SEBAIKNYA ANTARA STRUKTUR DAN DENAH-TAMPAK-POTONGAN DPAT DICIPTAKAN ADANYA KETERPADUAN YANG MATANG, SEHINGGA HASIL AKHIR RANCANGAN YANG KITA DAPATKAN BENAR-BENAR MERUPAKAN RANCANGAN YANG DAPAT DIPERTANGGUNGJAWABKAN BAIK DARI SEGI PERANCANGAN MAUPUN STRUKTURNYA.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 21.3pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 21.3pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>ANATOMI STRUKTUR </b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 21.3pt;">STRUKTUR BAGI BANGUNAN MERUPAKAN SARANA UNTUK MENYALURKAN BEBAN DAN AKIBAT PENGGUNAAN DAN ATAU KEHADIRAN BANGUNAN KE DALAM TANAH. STUDI TENTANG STRUKTUR MENYANGKUT PEMAHAMAN PRINSIP-PRINSIP DASAR YANG MENUNJUKKAN DAN MENANDAI PERILAKU OBJEK-OBJEK FISIK YANG DIPENGARUHI OLEH GAYA. STUDI TENTANG STRUKTUR DALAM HUBUNGANNYA DENGAN BANGUNAN JUGA MENYANGKUT PENANGANAN POKOK PERSOALAN YANG LEBIH JAUH TENTANG RUANG DAN UKURAN. KATA-KATA UKURAN, SKALA, BENTUK, PROPORSI, DAN MORFOLOGI SEMUANYA MERUPAKAN ISTILAH YANG BIASA DITEMUKAN DALAM PERANCANGAN STRUKTUR.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 21.3pt;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiM3deyUPkuzerOPiEKX2HTfwwtplih3VYLXw-r-DWf-2PKQ4lL0_M5D3nL1b791Gb0k9Qunx_GCtEakTskY_eJJP3EMnANQQP-L2ND1si6CYMBV81YXe-VDbiQvj6Kaghc3-x5gHqRcZI2/s1600-h/Picture2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiM3deyUPkuzerOPiEKX2HTfwwtplih3VYLXw-r-DWf-2PKQ4lL0_M5D3nL1b791Gb0k9Qunx_GCtEakTskY_eJJP3EMnANQQP-L2ND1si6CYMBV81YXe-VDbiQvj6Kaghc3-x5gHqRcZI2/s320/Picture2.png" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b><o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>TEKNOLOGI SISTEM STRUKTUR DAN PENDEKATAN KONSTRUKSIONAL</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">PADA PROSES DESAIN, KITA HARUS SELALU MELIHAT SECARA RINCI ALTERNATIF-ALTERNATIF KHUSUS. HANYA DENGAN CARA DEMIKIAN KITA DAPAT MEMAHAMI SEGALA IMPLIKASI DARI BERBAGAI ALTERNATIF, DAN MEMBUAT PILIHAN YANG RASIONAL MENGANI STRUKTUR AKHIR YANG AKAN DIGUNAKAN. PADA TARAF TERSEBUT, PERENCANA AKAN BERHUBUNGAN DENGAN HAL-HAL MENGENAI SISTEM KONSTRUKSI DAN MATERIAL. PERENCANA HARUS MEMPUNYAI PENGETAHUAN YANG LUAS TENTANG PENDEKATAN SECARA KONSTRUKSIONAL.<br />
CARA YANG SANGAT BERGUNA DALAM MENGELOMPOKKAN BERAGAM SISTEM STRUKTUR ADALAH DIDASARKAN ATAS PERILAKU MATERIAL YANG DIGUNAKAN PADA STRUKTUR. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>A. KONSTRUKSI KAYU</b></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">SISTEM UTAMA<br />
HAMPIR SEMUA SISTEM STRUKTUR YANG MENGGUNAKAN KAYU SEBAGAI MATERIAL DASAR DAPAT DIKELOMPOKKAN KE DALAM ELEMEN LINEAR YANG MEMBENTANG DUA ARAH.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">RANGKA RINGAN</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">ELEMEN KULIT BERTEGANGAN (<i>STRESSED SKIN ELEMENTS</i>)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">BALOK KUBUS</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KONSTRUKSI KAYU BERAT</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">RANGKA BATANG</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">PLAT LIPAT DAN PANEL PELENGKUNG<br />
<br />
</li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal"><b>B. KONSTRUKSI BETON BERTULANG</b></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">SISTEM UTAMA<br />
BETON BERTULANG ADALAH MATERIAL YANG SANGAT BANYAK DIGUNAKAN DAN SELALU MERUPAKAN JENIS ELEMEN STRUKTURAL YANG KAKU.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">SLAB DAN BALOK</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KONSTRUKSI PLAT DATAR (<i>FLAT-PLATE CONSTRUCTION</i>)</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KONSTRUKSI SLAB DATAR</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">SLAB WAFEL</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">ELEMEN BETON PRA-CETAK<b><br />
<br />
</b></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>C. KONSTRUKSI BAJA</b></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal">SISTEM UTAMA</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">BALOK</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">KONSTRUKSI KOMPOSIT</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">PELENGKUNG</li>
<li class="MsoNormal">STRUKTUR KABEL<br />
<br />
</li>
</ol>GONDELLShttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14061598196180807920noreply@blogger.com1